
Class 

Book 

Copyright N°. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



PKINCIPLES AND METHODS 

OF 

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

FOR USE IN 
TEACHER TRAINING CLASSES 



WILLIAM H. DOOLEY 

H 

In charge of Navy Yard Continuation School for the New York 
Board of Education 

WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY 
CHARLES A. PROSSER 

Director of the Federal Board for Vocational 
Education, Washington, D. C. 




BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 

HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY 

Cfre Rita rsfiOc prc?5 Cambridge 






COPYRIGHT, I919, BY WILLIAM H. DOOLEY 
ALL RIGHTS RESERVES 



J. Co 
OCT -7 !9I9 



CAMBRIDGE . MASSACHUSETTS 
U . S . A 



©CI.A536086 



CONTENTS 

Introduction. By Charles A. Prosser v 

I. The Value of Industrial Education .... 1 

II. The Educational Needs of Trades and Industries 10 

III. How Men have been Trained for Trades and 

Industries in the Past . . . . . . .18 

IV. Different Types of Industrial Schools ... 28 
V. Organization of Industrial Schools .... 41 

VI. Organization of Evening Industrial Courses . 52 

VII. An Industrial Survey 62 

VIII. Principles of Psychology Underlying Learning . 71 

IX. General Methods of Teaching 84 

X. General Methods for Teaching in Industrial 

Education . . 96 

XI. Methods of Teaching Shop -Work 115 

XII. Methods of Teaching Interpretation of Blue- 
Prints and Shop Sketching 130 

XIII. Methods of Teaching Shop Science . . . .143 

XTV. Industrial or Shop Mathematics 155 

XV. Methods of Teaching English 170 

XVI. Manual Training versus Industrial Education . 181 

Appendix. Courses of Study, etc. .... 201 

Outline 249 

Index ^ . 255 



EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION 

On page 243 the author of this book puts his finger upon 
one of the weaknesses in the present situation regarding 
industrial education, and at the same time points out one 
of the most fruitful fields of effort. He says, "One of the 
great problems connected with vocational education is the 
systematic training of a sufficient number of instructors for 
existing and proposed vocational schools." The lessons of 
our industrial unpreparedness as revealed by the war have 
not been lost; never in our history has there been such a 
keen realization of the dependence of production upon skill, 
and the part that wise methods of training can have in cul- 
tivating skill. A few years ago we were greatly concerned 
about supplying skilled workers; now we realize the equal 
necessity of training men and women to utilize the skill 
which the workers bring to their daily employment; hence 
the demand for training foremen and employment man- 
agers. In our ways and means for meeting these increasing 
demands we are at once fortunate and unfortunate; fortu- 
nate in adequate financial support for sound instructor 
training plans; unfortunate in a shortage of people to or- 
ganize and direct them, and doubly unfortunate in a lack of 
organized practical material for use in instructor (teacher) 
training classes. 

Teacher-training under the terms of the Smith-Hughes 
Act occupies a unique position in that a considerable amount 
of money may be made available at the very outset of the 
work — a condition which has rarely existed in American 
educational history when hew types of education have been 
proposed. J The law itself makes an allotment of money to 



vi EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION 

every State for teacher-training in the fields of agriculture, 
home economics, and trade and industry; it provides that 
not less than twenty per cent nor more than sixty per cent 
of the whole shall be expended in any one of the three fields, 
and further provides that every dollar of Federal money so 
expended shall be matched by a dollar from State or local 
sources. The small States of the Union are allotted at least 
83000 for training teachers. If the State Board of Educa- 
tion of a small State should decide to spend only the mini- 
mum amount possible — twenty per cent — this State 
would have $1000 of Federal money to be matched by 81000 
of State or local money, and would have, in all, not less than 
8-2000 to be expended for the training of teachers for service 
in trade and industrial schools. Should the Board of Educa- 
tion of a small State decide to spend sixty per cent, the maxi- 
mum amount possible for this work, this State would have 
available 86000. From these sums the amounts vary until 
we have the possibility of an expenditure for this work of 
approximately 8170,000 in the most populous State. 

The problem of teacher-training is an imminent one for 
several reasons. (1) There will be a constantly growing de- 
mand for suitably qualified teachers as the States put into 
operation their plans for trade and industrial schools. (2) 
Each of the States accepting the benefits of the Federal Act 
for industrial education, must, by the terms of the act itself, 
not later than 19-20 begin its program of training industrial 
and trade-school teachers. (3) A wise expenditure of public 
money makes it incumbent upon all concerned with the 
administration of industrial education, that methods and 
content of teacher-training courses be formulated at the 
earliest possible moment. 

The content of a teacher-training course for teachers of 
trade and industrial subjects is determined by two consid- 
erations, what to teach and how to teach. The content of 



EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION vii 

what to teach is determined by the kind of knowledge and 
information needed by the workmen skilled in the field in 
which the teacher works. The problem of training a skilled 
man efficiently and expeditiously to teach others what he 
himself knows is the vital part of such a teacher-training 
course. 

Wherein does a training course for vocational teachers 
differ from a course designed for any other group of teachers? 
This question has been frequently discussed for several 
years, but it is doubtful if at the present time there is gen- 
eral agreement throughout the country as to the content of 
a course for vocational teachers and a clear definition of dif- 
ferences. The phrase "professional training " for any group 
of teachers is not well defined. A variety of courses have 
been developed at many institutions and every year the 
study of education brings new developments. In college 
and university catalogues to-day we see long lists of courses 
having to do with education, frequently worked out in great 
detail and minuteness. Such courses as are suggested by 
the following topics are frequent: 

History of Education. 
Principles of Elementary Education. 
Principles of Secondary Education. 
Organization and Administration of Elementary 

Education. 
Organization and Administration of Secondary 

Education. 
Educational Psychology. 
General Method of Teaching. 
Special Method of Teaching Particular Subjects. 
Observation of Schools. 
Practice Teaching. 

An examination of the catalogues of educational institu- 



viii EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION 

tions throughout the country will show that every one of 
these topics has been applied to vocational education. 

One charged with organizing a course primarily intended 
to train teachers in vocational schools faces a bewildering 
mass of material if he attempts to make his course compar- 
able to those developed for elementary- and secondary- 
school teachers. It may not only be bewildering, it may be 
discouraging, and yet, somehow or other, those charged 
with the administration of vocational education have to 
solve, as well and as fully as possible under existing condi- 
tions, the problem of securing properly trained people to 
serve in trade and industrial schools. 

There is a belief that professional study will help in pre- 
paring those teachers, but the term "professional study" 
is very elastic, and, doubtless, several years of experimen- 
tation must elapse before there is general agreement re- 
garding the minimum amount of professional study accept- 
able either in terms of time devoted to such study or the 
content of the course. 

Whatever the course should include, it must be closely 
correlated with the kind of schools to be developed in a 
given locality. It should also be kept constantly in mind 
that the aim of the vocational school is specific and the 
school presents problems peculiar to that type of school. 
These problems are not those of an elementary or a high 
school. They are conducted for different purposes; their 
results are tested by different standards; they deal with dif- 
ferent groups of people, with different methods of teaching, 
different equipment; and further, the particular problems 
of the vocational school, taking the country at large, have 
not been made the subject of special consideration in estab- 
lished institutions; also, if the vocational school serves its 
purpose it must be kept in the most intimate contact with 
industrial resources and industrial conditions in its locality. 



EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION ix 

In other words, the vocational field of training is an ever- 
changing one. All these conditions make different demands 
upon teachers and upon those who would train teachers 
than are presented by the regular public schools. 

The plans for teacher-training, on analysis, show a recog- 
nition of four qualifications or sets of qualifications desired 
in a teacher: 

(1) He should be master of the subject he proposes to 
teach. 

(2) He must be able to deal sympathetically and intelli- 
gently with adolescents and adults. 

(3) He must know something of the relation of indus- 
trial education to other fields of human endeavor. 

(4) He must know how to teach. 

Every teacher-training course, or every subject proposed 
for study in such a course, may well be challenged on the 
ground of what it can contribute to producing or cultivating 
one or more of these four qualifications of a teacher. Any- 
thing that does not contribute to one of these four qualifica- 
tions is superfluous, because the time available for relevant 
matter is all too limited. The amount of time available in 
any proposed scheme of teacher-training is very limited and 
must be utilized in the most effective way. Every proposed 
course should, therefore, be challenged on the ground of its 
selection of field in which the student is to spend his time; 
that is to say, if we wish to produce a teacher of carpentry 
for a unit trade school or an evening trade extension school, 
what work should he take in order to make his teaching most 
effective? Obviously, if he is assumed to be a master of his 
trade — and no others are at present being discussed — we 
shall not give him further practice in his trade as a carpenter. 
But judging by the proposals that have been made, beyond 
this one thing there is little agreement on what he shall be 



x EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION 

given in order to become an effective teacher in a school. 
We note courses bearing such labels as these: 

Principles of Vocational Education. 
Current Practices in Vocational Education. 
The Psychology of Vocational Education. 
Industrial and Trade History. 

Numerous others might be cited. 

Running all through proposed teacher-training courses 
there seems to be assent to the proposition that the trades- 
man who is to become a teacher needs to be trained in how 
to teach, but what he is to do, or what he shall study to bring 
about this result, is, as yet, an unsolved problem. 

Such considerations as these have evidently been in Mr. 
Dooley's mind as he has brought together the material for 
this book, out of his years of experience as a director of trade 
and technical schools, as a trainer of teachers, as an or- 
ganizer of courses, and as a student of the many and varied 
phases of vocational education. Only in a secondary man- 
ner does this book deal with the art of teaching; its value lies 
in its compact summing-up of facts and principles, its 
"sampling" of methods and devices in organizing material 
for purposes of instruction, all of which, when handled by 
a live teacher of teachers, will be a constant stimulus to 
the members of the class to draw upon their own stores 
of knowledge and experience, to focus their thinking upon 
the problems at hand, and to justify their solutions by 
clear reasoning on adequate data, rather than by dogma- 
tism. The best book is one that compels thinking, the 
poor book offers ready-made solutions; this book happily 
avoids the latter. 

The real teacher will always want to know the relation of 
his part of the work to the whole field. This book presents 
a valuable combination of "high lights" and "background." 



EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION xi 

The unit of thought in each chapter is reinforced by a series 
of thought-provoking questions and a skillful selection from 
the literature of the subject, which should be of great value 
not only in the actual work of the teacher-training class, 
but also as the constant companion of the teacher in his 
efforts to make himself a better teacher. 

C. A. Prosseb 

Washington, D.C. 
June 1, 1919 - 



PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF 
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

CHAPTER I 

THE VALUE OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Education is one of the oldest, if not the oldest, institu- 
tion responding to human needs. The ideal system of edu- 
cation has always been that which in the highest degree 
prepares one for the duties of life. This means in a general 
sense the development of the whole man, the physical, the 
intellectual, and the moral. 

In the early ages education was given in the home, and 
was an intensely practical education. It was given in an 
informal manner, while the child was taught the usual 
methods of supplying the necessities of life, food, clothing, 
and shelter. Later when religion was organized, a special 
training for priesthood was introduced, consisting of a purely 
literary training on philosophy, literature, and science. 
This training was not provided in the home, but by special 
teachers, who taught this knowledge in a more or less or- 
ganized form, and in a very formal manner. Thus we see 
the early development of the two types of education; the 
intensely practical, taught in a natural, interesting manner, 
under the direction of the home, and the purely literary, 
taught in a very logical and abstract fashion. Later, special 
teachers gave formal education in law, medicine, etc., and 
the term "education" was applied to any form of organized 
knowledge taught by formaj. methods usually in a building 
called a school. In order to distinguish between the type of 



2 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

education that trains the mind in general and that which 
trains for law, medicine, etc., the term "cultural" was ap- 
plied to the former and "technical" to the latter. These 
two terms were used for many years. As the educational 
system became more complicated, with the various kinds of 
schools, the term "technical" lost its original definition, 
training directly for a career, and was applied to instruction 
that dealt with industrial arts. On account of this confu- 
sion, the term "technical education" is seldom used to-day 
in its broader sense. ' The word "vocational" has taken its 
place. 

To-day we find four great divisions of education : physical, 
vocational, social, and cultural education. Physical educa- 
tion includes all forms of training and instruction, the con- 
trolling purpose of which is to conserve and promote useful 
development of the body and its capacity. Social education 
may include all forms of training and instruction designed 
to make better group living and activities; that is, all moral 
education, civic education, ethical training, and much of re- 
ligious instruction. Cultural education includes all forms of 
education; that is, training and instruction designed to de- 
velop valuable cultural interests in such fields as art, litera- 
ture, science, and history. Social education and cultural ed- 
ucation are often considered jointly as " general education " 
or "liberal education." Vocational education includes all 
forms of specialized education. 

General education aims to develop general intelligence, 
the power of appreciation in all common fields of utilization, 
and the ability to use languages, mathematics, scientific 
methods, etc., without reference to any specific calling: 
while vocational education has as its aim, to prepare for a 
specific calling, such as law, medicine, machinist trade, etc. 

The occupations that men and women follow, that are 
productive and lead to self-support, may be grouped into six 



THE VALUE OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 3 

large classes, namely, the professions, the agricultural pur- 
suits, commercial pursuits, trades and industries, and home- 
making and nautical pursuits. The divisions of vocational 
corresponding to the above occupations may be divided into 
these divisions : professional education, vocational commer- 
cial education, vocational agricultural education, vocational 
industrial education, and vocational home-making and 
nautical education. 

Industrial education denotes the field of vocational educa- 
tion designed to meet the needs of the manual wage-earner 
in the trades and industries, and in the home. This educa- 
tion is given to persons over fourteen years of age. It is true 
that certain forms of hand-training, given to persons under 
fourteen years of age, may contribute to industrial efficiency; 
nevertheless it is not considered as specific trade training. 1 

This volume will deal with the principles and methods of 
teaching involved in vocational industrial education; that 
is, the form of vocational education that prepares the in- 
dividual specifically for some industrial pursuit or trade, 
such as a machinist, millwright, etc. 

The different forms of hand-work given in the first six 
grades to boys and girls, paper-folding, picture-mounting, 
clay-modeling, whittling, weaving, needlework, and other 
constructive activities within the range of the experience of 
children under twelve years of age, are called "manual 
arts." The form of training and instruction, usually in wood 
and metal, sometimes printing and bookbinding, for boys 
between the ages of twelve and eighteen, is called " manual 
training." Corresponding to manual training for boys, a 
course called "household arts," "domestic economy," or 
"home economics," is provided, in some schools, for girls 
between the ages of twelve and eighteen. The course con- 
sists of a variety of practical exercises and experiences in 
1 See page 181. 



4 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

cooking and sewing, to give some practice and an insight 
into domestic operations. The above forms of education, 
manual and household arts training, are part of general 
education, and are provided to make pupils appreciate the 
value of industrial and domestic life. 

At the age of twelve, about the sixth grade, a program of 
instruction and training is offered, to children who are not 
profiting by the regular course of instruction and are not 
going to college, to participate in a series of practical experi- 
ences relating to many vocations. This is not vocational 
education, but prevocational education, and assists pupils 
to sample different trade experiences, so that it will be pos- 
sible for them to make an intelligent choice of occupation. 
Vocational guidance is a form of instruction and examination 
to present trade information and guidance to pupils over 
twelve years of age. 

The conclusions from a number of surveys show that the 
great bulk of boys and girls leave school as soon as the law 
allows, usually at the age of fourteen, before completing 
the elementary course. This army of children is four times 
as large as the group which at approximately the same age 
enters the high school. About one of every six of these chil- 
dren has reached the eighth grade, one in every four has 
attained the seventh grade, and one out of every two, the 
sixth grade. 

These pupils experience very little difficulty in obtaining 
work at a high initial wage in so-called "blind-alley" em- 
ployments; that is, a work that requires little training and 
involves little thinking. Another important point is, that 
these pupils are very restless, drift from one occupation to 
another, and are idle approximately one half of the time. 
The so-called "skilled trades," such as the higher branches 
of metal and machine trades, the building and printing 
trades, do not care to receive children under sixteen years of 



THE VALUE OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 5 

age, because they have not the physical development to do 
consecutive or accurate work and require considerable super- 
vision. Very few of the present elementary, and practically 
none of the evening schools, show any great assistance to this 
group of young people, in the training, discovery, guidance, 
and development of their capacities or preparation for the 
work they might or do enter. It is from this group that 
industry recruits its workers. 

A very high percentage of the skilled workmen, foremen, 
and superintendents of industries and trades of this country 
to-day have been educated across the water, while the Amer- 
ican boys occupy the ordinary clerical, mercantile, and a 
number of unskilled positions, at hardly a living wage. 
Whatever preparation the public school system is providing, 
for the training and development of young people for the 
work they are to enter, is given in the high school, where 
about three per cent of the pupils are found, and less than 
one per cent of those ever go into the industries as mechanics. 

The progressive development of all trades and industries 
demands the training of a group of skilled workers who may 
act later as foremen. The future skilled workers must be 
trained. Industrial conditions to-day differ very greatly 
from those of earlier times. For example, trade and indus- 
try are more ambitious, more successful, and more scientific, 
than ever before. They have content that is worthy of 
study for itself. Years ago they were too simple for intel- 
lectual study. Now they require the highest form of mental 
study and demand the best intellects. 

A glance through educational history will show us that 
the reason industry has not received a dignified place in the 
course of study of the public school system is due to the tra- 
dition from the Greek philosophers, who looked with con- 
tempt on manual work which was performed by slaves, 
workers, and tradesmen of the age, and purposely omitted 



6 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

from the schools any training along the line of utilitarian 
subjects. During the Middle Ages the same feeling existed; 
industrial education was apart from culture; one was a mat- 
ter of apprenticeship and the other a matter of books. This 
state of affairs continued in England up to the nineteenth 
century, when the primary school provided the education 
for the industrial workers. Pupils were educated in the 
higher schools to be employers. People were expected to 
remain or continue in their station of life. Culture was the 
possession of the upper classes and had absolutely nothing 
to do with utility. During the last century the sentiment 
that the masses were expected to support the classes in their 
leisure, particularly in America, has passed away. The 
spirit of democracy has dominated our social system, so that 
to-day every man is expected to be a worker. 

Vocational industrial education or industrial education 
may be justified on the grounds that a democracy means 
equal opportunities for all, that every one should be engaged 
in a useful occupation within reasonable bounds of age, 
health, and strength; that is, all persons of both sexes, not 
incapacitated or in school, should be working. Practically 
eighty -five per cent of the present workers — those who 
work for pay — are engaged in producing concrete material; 
about five per cent are engaged in professional service; the 
other ten per cent are in various forms of personal service. 
Life and health, and to a large extent discipline and charac- 
ter, must be derived from employment in the industrial and 
commercial fields. Any large number of men and women 
without training for some definite occupation, and not able to 
be producers, are apt to become a heavy burden on society, 
and often form a discontented class that threatens the exis- 
tence of our Government. Society must provide means and 
training for the proper distribution of human talent, in order 
that every member may be assured of a living wage or salary. 



THE VALUE OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 7 

Industrial education may be advocated because of the 
increased earning power it affords. The salary of a person 
may be determined by certain factors which may be divided 
into two groups, the individual and the organization. The 
individual group includes such factors as natural ability, 
proper development of the body, the development of honesty 
and morality, which are by-educational products of general 
education and industrial education. The factors that enter 
into the organization group are capital, up-to-date appli- 
ances, leadership, proper allowance for depreciation, etc. 
One of the chief factors that will increase the productivity 
of the individual is industrial education. Increased pro- 
ductivity means that the country as a whole will be able to 
increase the standards of living and the worker will be able 
to have some of the luxuries. 

To summarize: It is in the interest of society, labor, and 
capital to have the most effective system of industrial edu- 
cation. Properly trained workers (labor) increase the pro- 
duction. From the workers' point of view physical energy 
and knowledge represent the workers' capital, and the great- 
est return to the worker, in addition to personal satisfaction, 
comes only through an efficient system of industrial educa- 
tion. Society profits when every member has rendered his 
greatest contribution. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 

1. What was the principal aim of formal education in the early ages in 
(a) Rome; (b) Athens; (c) Middle Ages; (d) United States, to-day? 

2. What caused the change of the aim of formal education during the 
different periods? 

3. State the division of education that each one of the following subjects 
represents: 

(a) Manual training in the sixth grade. 
(6) Military drill in a high school. 

(c) Recreation in an evening high school. 

(d) Forging in a technical high school. 



8 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

(e) First-year science. 

(/) French in a classical high school. 

(g) Civics in a community center. 

(h) Roof -framing for house carpenters in an evening trade school. 

4. What is the distinct meaning to-day of "technical education"? 

5. What is the meaning of the term "vocational education" to-day? 

6. What is the distinct meaning of "industrial education" to-day? 

7. Name the class of education to which each of the following occupa- 
tions belong: 

(a) Sea pilot. (e) Dentist. 

(b) Die-sinker. (/) A housewife. 

(c) Market-gardener. (g) A chemist. 

(d) Stenographer. (h) An expert accountant. 

8. What is the meaning of "industrial efficiency "? 

9. What is a "blind-alley" employment? Give a list of such employ- 
ments. 

10. What is a "producer," "consumer," and "non-producer" in an eco- 
nomic sense? Give an example of each. 

11. Trace the stages of development of a steel boiler plate from the time 
it leaves the ground to the time it is installed as a boiler. Explain in 
terms of economics. 

LIST OF REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING 

* References marked * are books of first importance. 
** References marked ** are books of secondary importance. 

* Brief Course in the History of Education. Paul Munroe. 

(Description of the great educational movements.) 

* Education. Herbert Spencer. 

(Need of practical education. The utilitarian point of view.) 

* What Knowledge is Most Worth. N. M. Butler. 

(Need of pure academic education. The scholar's point of view.) 

* Census Reports on Trade and Industry. United States Census Bureau. 

Washington, D.C. 

(Statistics showing the number of people employed in trades and 
industries.) 
** Report of the Douglas Commission on Industrial Education. Massa- 
chusetts, 1906. 

(A valuable report showing the need of education for children 
between 14 and 16.) 
** Report on Industrial Education by the New York Board of Statistics. 
New York, 1908. 

(A description of the trades and industries in New York State 
showing the educational needs of each one.) 



THE VALUE OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 9 

** Laggards in Our Schools. Leonard P. Ayres. 

(Statistics showing the large percentage of pupils who repeat 
grade work and leave school as soon as the law allows them.) 
"Economic Reasons for Vocational Education." J. F. Scott. Ped- 
agogical Sem., June, 1913. 

(Reasons for vocational education based on economics.) 



CHAPTER II 

THE EDUCATIONAL NEEDS OF TRADES AND INDUSTRIES 

Since industrial education is to train specifically for defi- 
nite positions in the trades and industries, it is clear that to 
be effective it must function with their needs. The modern 
organization of industries and trades tends toward the uses 
of labor-saving devices and power machinery. This means 
a tendency toward standardization and specialization of 
products, which involve a large organization under one roof 
and one manager for purposes of economy. Every organ- 
ization is divided into two departments : production (manu- 
facturing) and the distribution (selling) phases. The pro- 
duction is carried on by an organization varying from a 
large to a small scale, composed of a manager, agent, or 
superintendent, overseers or foremen, section or second 
hands, and workers. The large establishments have in addi- 
tion designers or draftsmen, testers or chemists, shop super- 
visors, and sometimes research engineers. 

The manager or superintendent may or may not come 
from the ranks. In the past it has been possible for men 
lacking technical training, but possessing good common 
sense and business capacity, to rise to this position. This is 
not true to-day in a great many engineering establishments 
and large factories. Oftentimes he is a technically trained 
man who entered the industry direct from school as an as- 
sistant to the manager or superintendent. A manager or 
superintendent must have a great deal of foresight and will 
power. He must have initiative, an analytical mind, and 
executive ability; that is, he must be able to see clearly a 



NEEDS OF TRADES AND INDUSTRIES 11 

problem, its solution, and have the ability to put the solu- 
tion into effect. 

The progress of industries in the past has been due to the 
efforts of scattered inventors and workmen all laboring un- 
der great disadvantages. Manufacturers and tradesmen 
are beginning to see that there are numerous possibilities of 
applying different scientific discoveries that have taken 
place. Competition compels us to realize that all indus- 
tries and trades have developed to a point where the work- 
ing-out of theory and practice has become a science, and 
that the application supersedes the old "rule-of -thumb " 
method and demands the continuous employment of scien- 
tifically trained leaders in a bureau of research. The results 
of this bureau will tend to lower the cost of production by 
eliminating manufactory weaknesses, improving tools, and 
applying the principles of science to raw materials, waste 
products, methods, etc. It is for this reason that large cor- 
porations such as the General Electric Company have a 
research staff with a group of specialists working on new 
industrial problems. The group may include chemists, biol- 
ogists, designers, metallurgists, mechanicians, etc., who have 
been trained in the scientific departments of the colleges. 

A foreman usually comes from the ranks of workers. He 
is the job master, and as such must be able to get good work 
out of men. This means he must have good judgment of 
human values, handling men. In addition his outlook on 
life will be very different from that of the worker. He must 
have a habitual reaction to human reaction. 

The skilled worker should have, in addition to a good 
physique, a clear mind capable of keen perception, and an 
inventive mind, which is often called ingenuity. The keen 
sense-perception should be such as to do very accurate work, 
dealing with measurements of a thousandth part of an inch. 
The skilled worker differs from the unskilled worker in the 



12 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

degree of mental versatility. He has acquired by experience 
a fund of information and skill so that he is able to form new 
judgments. The experience of the skilled worker is such 
that only recent trade experiences are available for ready 
recall. This is the principal reason why a skilled workman 
cannot leave his trade for any length of time without suffer- 
ing a loss of skill. 

Semi-skilled workers or machine tenders, etc., should have 
a good physcial development and quick time-perception, 
which is really the ability of being dexterous. Oftentimes 
they are physically sluggish, in addition to the general char- 
acteristic of slow mentality which may be due to the lack of 
good nutritious food or dissipation, or both. Any reflective 
action on the part of the semi-skilled worker retards his rate 
of production. These workers are generally recruited from 
the ranks of those who leave school, follow a line of employ- 
ment with no prospects until they reach manhood, and then 
see a chance of getting an adult wage without going through 
the training necessary for the skilled positions. The worker 
is seldom called upon to meet a new situation, and his work 
never involves problems which cannot be solved from the 
limited range of his past experiences. This automatic and 
semi-automatic machinery develops a fatigue, which is a 
serious problem. Women are able to work in this way bet- 
ter than men, and do not show fatigue to as great an extent. 

The unskilled class of workers usually represents the least 
intelligent part of the community. Of course there are ex- 
ceptions, as in the case of bright young people who have be- 
come "blind-alley" workers or others who lack the sense of 
responsibility. In spite of the great increase in inventions, 
there are a great many processes performed by unskilled 
labor. 

The occupations found in trades and industries may be 
roughly divided into the following groups : 



NEEDS OF TRADES AND INDUSTRIES 13 

Occupations requiring skill and trade knowledge. 
Occupations requiring skill and no trade knowledge. 
Occupations requiring trade knowledge and no skill. 
Occupations requiring neither skill nor trade knowledge, 
except in a very low degree. 

There is a certain amount of industrial training that must 
be imparted to the group of men on the distributing phase 
of industry. The knowledge of the salesman of his product 
should be thorough, and at the same time should be very 
different from that of the mechanic. 1 

A great many men and boys are injured and many die 
every year on account of injuries or the conditions under 
which they work. Experiments and careful questioning of 
injured people seem to indicate that most hand injuries are 
due to performing work on machines automatically, and be- 
cause, without the intellect, the hand has no sense of danger 
until just at the instant the injury takes place. The as- 
sumption is that the hand proceeds automatically to correct 
the machines when they become jammed or caught, and 
unless the intellect becomes active, the hand is endangered 
and caught. The inclination of the workman to perform 
his tasks automatically has caused nearly all industrial acci- 
dents. If employees worked with their intellects fully con- 
centrated upon their work, guards would not be necessary, 
for workmen would be awake to all dangers at all times. In 
many lines of work this concentration would cut down pro- 
duction more than fifty per cent. If the workman had to 
think of every move of his hand before acting he could not 
do more than half of his work. Therefore machinery must 
be both guarded and production decreased in order to obtain 
best results. A great many accidents and industrial diseases 
may be prevented by care, safety devices, and proper safe- 

1 See page 207. 



14 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

guards for the health of the worker. A specially trained ex- 
pert called a "safety engineer" is usually employed to look 
after the welfare of the men and boys, teaching them how to 
avoid accidents and to prevent disease. 

Every year many workers are released from the trades 
and industries on account of injuries received. These men 
and boys are often allowed to remain idle for the rest of then- 
lives. Very carefully prepared devices called "working 
arms" and "working legs" have been invented for injured 
men, to assist them in performing certain lines of work. In 
many cases the earning power of the injured worker has 
equaled that of the normal man. 

One of the most serious problems to-day that confronts 
the industrial world is the discontent and unrest of the work- 
ers of the trades and industries. This is due in a measure to 
the overgrowth of the present industrial conditions of highly 
specialized work that has made the worker a mere attach- 
ment of a machine. Modern engineering has developed the 
machine part of industry at the expense of the human factor. 
To illustrate: Modern shop systems in general have been 
organized so as to allow to each machine a definite earning 
capacity that is expressed in the form of a daily or hourly 
machine rate. Machines represent the investment of large 
sums of money, and therefore must be kept at work all of the 
time in order to justify the expenditure involved in their 
purchase. If a machine, for any reason, is allowed to stand 
idle, the charge against it mounts up, and it becomes a bur- 
den instead of being a useful and productive investment. In 
the attempt to develop the efficiency of the machines, many 
manufacturers and tradesmen have lost sight of the fact that 
the worker is human and demands consideration. 

The progressive manufacturers have seen this spirit of 
unrest growing among the employees and have attempted 
to assist them in various ways which are usually grouped 



NEEDS OF TRADES AND INDUSTRIES 15 

under a heading called "welfare work." A specially trained 
person called an employment manager is usually selected to 
employ workers and look after their welfare. This welfare 
work has failed in some cases because it conferred benefits 
upon a group of workmen, requiring and asking no service 
on their part. Experience shows that the average American 
workman is suspicious of an employer " bearing gifts." This 
same average American workman, however, is keen enough 
to engage cooperatively in any undertaking that is frankly 
advanced by the employer as of mutual advantage, as the 
establishment of an all-comprehensive employees' service 
department, such as locker-room service, physical examina- 
tions, dispensary dental service, sickness and death bene- 
fits, lunch-room service, banking and loan service, indus- 
trial education, and recreational facilities. 

This cooperation will tend to develop a strong sense of 
loyalty between the worker and the organization, an esprit 
de corps similar to that existing between the apprentice and 
master, and to remove discontent among the workers. The 
average manufacturer seldom knows or sees his men, and 
therefore is not able to have the sympathetic understanding 
that he should. 

Another great educational need is the training of the im- 
migrant. The United States is just beginning to realize the 
great educational task before it, the education of at least 
thirteen million foreign-born people in this country, many 
of whom do not speak our language, do not come in contact 
with Americanizing influences, and are in a measure out of 
sympathy with the country's institutions. Heretofore we 
have looked to the traditional school system, the influence 
of social contact, and city life to mould the recent immigrant 
and his children into American citizens. These different 
agencies performed this work when the numbers of immi- 
grants were not large, and were from Ireland, Scotland, 



16 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION J 

England, Sweden, etc., people who were more or less familiar 
with the institutions of this country. Within the last decade 
or two the numbers of immigrants have greatly increased, 
and many are from the remote sections of Europe, making 
the problem of assimilation greater than ever before. 

The industries of this country are employing these immi- 
grants to perform highly specialized, semi-skilled, and un- 
skilled work. In iron and steel manufacturing east of the 
Mississippi River 57.7 per cent of the employees are foreign- 
born: in bituminous coal mining in Pennsylvania, Ohio, 
Indiana, Illinois, Kansas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Alabama, 
Virginia, and West Virginia, 61.9 per cent of the employ- 
ees are foreign-born: in woolen and worsted manufactur- 
ing in the North Atlantic States, 61.9 are again foreign- 
born; in clothing manufacture in New York City, Rochester, 
Baltimore, and Chicago, 72.2 per cent are foreign-born; and 
so on. Probably two thirds of the construction and main- 
tenance work of the railroads and railways has been done by 
the foreign-born workman. In addition most of the general 
street and road construction has also been carried on by the 
recent immigrants. 1 

An examination of the work performed by these people 
shows that it is not educational. They are in the employ- 
er's hands from eight to twelve hours a day, and when they 
get through with the day's work they are too tired to receive 
definite instruction for Americanization. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 

1. Draw a diagram showing the organization of 

(a) Cotton mill. 

(b) A large electrical plant. 

(c) General machine shop. 

2. What are the qualities necessary to be a research chemist in a rubber 
factory? 

1 Report on the Education of the Immigrant, U.S. Bureau of Education. 



NEEDS OF TRADES AND INDUSTRIES 17 

3. What are the qualities necessary to be a high-grade die-sinker? 

4. Why cannot young men between the ages of 14 and 20 be classified 
as to their future ability to serve as foremen? 

5. What callings in industrial trades lie between the professional engineer 
and the skilled tradesman? 

6. What are the qualities necessary for a man to be a foreman of a ma- 
chine shop? 

7. What are the qualities that distinguish a lathe hand from one who 
sells lathes? 

8. What are the qualities necessary for a man to be a general manager 
of a large electrical plant employing 6000 hands? 

9. What are the necessary qualities to become a good draftsman in a 
shipyard? 

10. Name the trades and industries that require a large number of un- 
skilled workers. 

11. Should industrial education be given to the group mentioned in 
question 10? 

12. WTiat are the economic advantages of a highly specialized trade? 

13. Is there any tendency to limit the differentiation and specialization 
that is going on in the trades and industries? 

14. Name some occupations that cannot be entered during youth. 

15. Name occupations that depend upon juvenile help. 

16. Is there any place in the trades and industries for a so-called "handy 
man with tools." 

' LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING 

* The Modern Factory. George M. Price. 

(The organization of a factory showing the different classes of 
workers.) 

* Education for Industrial Workers. Herman Schneider. 

(A very interesting study of the work performed by the different 
classes of workers.) 

* " Business Men in the Making." F. M. White. Outlook, Aug. 26, 1911. 

* Practical Safety Methods and Devices. George A. Cowee. 

(Need of practical safety methods to protect the workers.) 
** Workers and the State. A. A. Dean. 

(A system of industrial education is as necessary as professional 
education.) 

* Betterment, Individual, Social and Industrial. E. Cook. 

(Methods to improve the working classes.) 
** The Spirit of Youth and Industry. Jane Addams. 

(The relation between the habits of youth and the needs of 
industry.) 



CHAPTER in 

HOW MEN HAVE BEEN TRAINED FOR TRADES AND 
INDUSTRIES IN THE PAST 

The history of the training of young people for the trades 
and industries in the past will assist us materially in solving 
the same problem to-day. Of course we must bear in mind 
that we cannot transplant any of the institutions of the past 
and expect them to meet the problems of to-day, because 
conditions of the past and the present are very different. 

As far back as the time of the Roman Empire men were 
selected to build and destroy bridges, water-supplies, and 
fortifications. Every well-organized army had its group of 
bridge-builders, etc., called "engineers." Later they laid 
out campaigns, made plans to defend or attack forts. In 
order to do this work they invented implements of war, en- 
gines, etc. In time of peace they constructed waterworks. 
When the duty of constructing roads, waterworks, arches, 
etc., was left to the civil authorities, the expert was called a 
"civil engineer," to be distinguished from the "military en- 
gineer." Later experts on the steam engine were called 
"mechanical engineers." In like manner the term "electri- 
cal engineer," "sanitary engineer," "mining engineer," etc., 
arose. Engineers in England at first received their knowl- 
edge through the world of experience aided by advice from 
older men. As time went on opportunity was provided for 
the training of engineers by means of an apprenticeship of 
seven years to an old established engineer. The fee usually 
paid depended upon the reputation of the engineer. Most 
of the practical training was received through experience in 
the field, and the theoretical and scientific knowledge was 



HOW MEN HAVE BEEN TRAINED 19 

imparted by the engineer in the office two or three months 
of the year. 

The skilled mechanic requiring less theoretical instruction 
and more manipulative skill than the engineer has always, 
up to a generation ago, been trained in either the home or 
the shop, under the guidance of his father or a skilled me- 
chanic or master. In order to show how this training has 
been given at different times in the world's history, we may 
divide the history of the industrial work into four stages or 
periods: first, the family system; second, the guild system; 
third, the domestic system; and fourth, the factory. 

Under the family system the different forms of industrial 
work were carried on by members of the household for the 
purpose of meeting the needs of the family. There were no 
sales of the product. Each class in society, from the peasant 
to that of the nobleman, had its own devices for carrying on 
all phases of industrial work. Father taught son all forms 
of manual work, and mother taught daughter to perform 
the household duties. The manual and household work of 
the nobility were performed by slaves. 

As communities became larger and cities sprang up, all 
forms of trade became more than a family concern. There 
was a demand for a better grade of industrial products. 
This meant a larger supply of hand tools than was usually 
found in the home of the ordinary worker. Some workmen 
began to develop greater ability in commercializing their 
handicraft products than others, and became prosperous. 
The smaller mechanic who owned and constructed all his 
own tools found that he could not compete, so he started to 
work for the more prosperous mechanic in a shop rather than 
a cottage. As time went on each manufacturer developed 
a reputation, and usually employed several workmen and 
some young men to learn. The manufacturers became quite 
important, and soon grouped themselves together under an 



20 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

organization, called a "guild," and applied to the city for cer- 
tain privileges. After a while each group of tradesmen, such 
as cloth workers, etc., organized under a distinct guild, car- 
ried on by a small group of men called "masters," employing 
three or four men (distinguished later as "journeymen"), 
and at least one beginner called an "apprentice." The guilds 
organized and dominated all conditions of the manufacturer. 

The masters, under the guild, had the advantage of com- 
bining together and obtaining the monopoly of the trade in 
the local market, instead of competing against one another. 
After developing the trade conditions of the craft, they natu- 
rally turned to the question of training workmen, that they 
might have a standard of workmanship. A young man 
was obliged to serve an apprenticeship of seven years before 
he was allowed to become a journeyman. These are the 
conditions we find existing in the trades of England during 
the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries. 

The guilds set up very definite standards for the training 
of apprentices. The youth was taught all branches of the 
trade. The shops were small, and masters and apprentices 
often worked at the same benches, side by side. The master 
worked at all processes of the trade and taught the appren- 
tice the complete trade. Since the number of apprentices 
was restricted to the number of journeymen, there was little 
division of labor. The apprentice assisted the master at 
every process of the trade. The seven-year apprenticeship 
gave the youth the training necessary to bring out the ar- 
tistic side. The desire of the apprentice to become a master 
some day was the incentive for him to acquire a knowledge 
of all the processes of his trade, dexterity of hand, and artis- 
tic skill. The efficiency of the apprenticeship was guarded 
by guild supervisors. Both master and apprentice were 
members of the same guild. Guilds regulated conduct and 
specified what should be taught. 



HOW MEN HAVE BEEN TRAINED 21 

In the beginning the training was merely one of develop- 
ment of skill, and consisted of theory of materials used 
(gained by working on them) and the acquisition of experi- 
ence and knowledge handed down and guarded zealously by 
older craftsmen. Scientific knowledge of the industry at 
this time was very limited. 

The careful, individual attention, on account of the small 
number of apprentices, given by the journeyman to each 
young man, prevented him from being superficial. The 
master's and journeyman's work furnished the model for the 
youth to imitate. Since the earnings of the apprentice 
went to his master, the young man found his reward, not in 
immediate gains, which tends to superficiality, but in his 
employer's praise and in the joy of artistic creation. 

The apprentice was taught by actual participation in 
trade work, by imitation, supplemented by suggestions, and 
the necessary information. Comenius, in the seventeenth 
century, reminds teachers that artisans do not detain their 
apprentices with theories, but set them to do actual work 
at an early stage; thus they learn to forge by forging, to 
paint by painting, to carve by carving, etc. Mechanics do 
not begin by drumming rules into their apprentices. They 
are taken into the workshop and shown the work that has 
been done. When the boy wishes to imitate this work, tools 
are placed in his hands, and he is shown how they should be 
held and how to use them. If mistakes are made, the me- 
chanic gives advice and corrects them more often by ex- 
ample than by mere words, and as facts show, the novices 
easily succeed by imitation. Obadiah Walker in his work, 
Of Education, says, " In manual arts the master first showeth 
his apprentice what he is to do, next works it himself, in his 
presence, next gives rules, and then sets him to work." 

The master craftsman taught and arranged his trade skill 
and information in a way different from the logical order of 



9.1 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

the arts and sciences as presented to-day by the schoolmas- 
ter. As each journeyman was not allowed to have more 
than two apprentices, the instruction was individual to a 
certain extent. The master craftsman began his instruction 
by using the strong instinct, imitation, and proceeded to 
teach manipulative skill through it. The related trade 
knowledge included much practical information on the arts 
and sciences, and was imparted to him as necessary, in such 
a way that the apprentice first had the practice, and then 
the theory or the thinking about the practice. Under this 
system skill was acquired intelligently. The apprentice 
practiced commercial work. If he required any additional 
drill on certain details, he would repeat the operation (drill) 
on some waste stock. Note that the apprentice was not 
taught exercises, but his skill was acquired in the most eco- 
nomical way, by learning all the habits of skill in the com- 
plete project, so that each had its proper setting. A motive 
for doing the work was shown the apprentice the first day, 
when an actual model that had commercial value was shown. 
The young man was not asked to perform a series of opera- 
tions, given by the master, through unthinking imitation, 
without any regard to the purpose of the work. 

Apprentices lived with the masters, and in this way were 
imbued with the work, the industrial atmosphere and fea- 
tures of the trade which were handed down from father to 
son. In addition a distinct spirit of cooperation existed 
among the master workmen and apprentices that is lacking 
to-day between the employer and his employees. This close 
relation between master and workmen of the old-time trades 
prevented a great many of the disagreeable relations that 
exist to-day under our present industrial system. 

By the middle of the eighteenth century the trades began 
to break away from the guilds and to spread from cities to 
rural districts. The work was still carried on in the master's 



HOW MEN HAVE BEEN TRAINED 23 

house, although he had lost the economic independence he 
had under the old guild system, where he acted as merchant 
and manufacturer. He now received materials from the 
merchant and disposed of the finished goods to a middleman 
who looked after the demands of the factory. It was the 
family system that existed in the American colonies at the 
beginning of the settlement, followed by the domestic sys- 
tem. The guild system was not adopted in the United 
States, as it was going out of existence on the Continent 
during the settlement of the colonies. 

During the early colonial times boys and girls were trained 
by a well-defined apprenticeship in the shop and office, really 
handed down from the guilds, and by a training on the farm 
and in the household. The practical education of the child 
on the farm often began as early as six years of age, when he 
or she assisted in doing some of the little chores. The work 
was carried out in the spirit of play, and it was varied and in- 
teresting. Thus we see the old-fashioned mother training 
the child into habits of work and the enjoyment of the same, 
by bringing play and work together. The play furnished an 
adequate physical training for the child. It was better than 
the gymnastics of to-day because the body was best exer- 
cised in the accomplishment of some purpose. Young peo- 
ple, through the agencies of the home, shop, and community, 
were trained in the useful habits, thrift and temperance, to 
have respect for law and order and in the development of 
the higher types of citizenship. 

The characteristics of young people are the same to-day 
as when the old-fashioned apprenticeship system existed. 
The training on the farm, in the home, and the apprentice- 
ship in the shop held the strong young people, corresponding 
to the same type of to-day, during the long period of adoles- 
cence, and gave them the necessary training to become good 
tradesmen and housewives and successful men and women. 



24 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Let us examine very closely the apprenticeship in the 
shop to-day, the training in the home, and the methods 
of teaching. If we examine the different industries to-day, 
we shall find that the training and skill necessary to 
perform the work vary. The greatest training is required 
in industries demanding a high .degree of skill and intel- 
ligence, and the least in those highly specialized occupa- 
tions performed by the newly arrived immigrants from 
the agricultural districts of Europe. In the machine, en- 
gine, and locomotive construction works, where the trades 
demand a high degree of skill and intelligence, there is need 
of broadly equipped workmen of high technical skill. On 
the other hand, in the case of those factories employing 
workers tending semi-automatic tools, where a low grade of 
skill and intelligence is required, very little industrial edu- 
cation is necessary. To illustrate : the rolling mills require 
a few skilled hands who direct the operations, and a great 
many unskilled hands who assist and tend machines. In 
the manufacture of sheet metal and electrical apparatus, 
where the work is performed by semi-automatic machines, 
the operators simply feed the machines which requires little 
mental effort after the first week. Jewelry and gas fixtures 
are made by piece workers, who perform highly specialized 
work and are trained for it. All-around skilled help is 
necessary for the finer class of work. 

The old-fashioned apprenticeship was a very satisfactory 
method as long as the master had time to teach the appren- 
tice and the apprentice had time to learn all about his trade. 
A scientific advance has revolutionized industrial and eco- 
nomic conditions of old times. The factory system, of a 
highly specialized character, and the modern application on 
a large scale of machines and capital to manufacture, have 
taken place. The master has become so busy trying to 
maintain himself against the competition of others, and to 



HOW MEN HAVE BEEN TRAINED 25 

keep up with the technical advancement of his trade, that 
time has failed him for the instruction of his apprentice, 
while on the other hand, the latter has found that the trade 
has developed to such an extent that he can no longer learn 
its fundamentals by mere activity in his master's shop. 

Thus the apprentice, no longer a pupil, has to-day become 
merely a hired boy, who, while making himself useful around 
the workshop, learns what he can by observation and prac- 
tice. If he sees the interior of his master's home, it is to do 
some work in no way connected with his trade. In olden 
times the master worked with his men; now he rarely works 
at his trade; his time is spent more profitably, in seeking for 
customers, purchasing material, or managing his finances. 
The workshop is put in charge of a foreman whose reputa- 
tion and wages depend on the amount of satisfactory work 
that he can produce at the least cost. He has no time to 
teach boys, and as there is little profit in the skilled trades 
for boys between the ages of fourteen and sixteen, they are 
not wanted. The unskilled trades thrive on juvenile labor. 
It is true that in Europe the seven-year apprenticeship still 
exists to some extent, and a more thorough training is pro- 
vided for apprentices than in this country. The old appren- 
ticeship is not likely to be revived. A new system of prac- 
tical education and training must take its place. 

The industrial operations of a factory are so highly spe- 
cialized that the operators are not obliged to exercise any of 
the academic training received in school. The result is that 
they rapidly lose the habit of thinking, the power of initia- 
tive, and when they reach the age of manhood are not so 
well educated as when they left school. Not only that, but 
when an opportunity presents itself, we find our American 
young people are not able to fill responsible positions, such 
as overseers or heads of departments, which are filled by 
skilled workmen from Europe who have received a complete 



26 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

training, practice, and theory, in the mills or shops dur- 
ing the years from fourteen to eighteen — while they were 
working. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 

1. What objection may be raised to-day to the method of training a 
mechanical engineer by apprenticing the student to a practicing me- 
chanical engineer? 

2. What is the difference between the pure arts and sciences and the 
applied arts and sciences? 

3. Explain why the growth of technical schools in this country did not 
take place prior to the nineteenth century. 

4. State the conditions under which the family system existed. 

5. Why was the guild system a necessary economic condition? 

6. Organizations bearing the name of cloth workers' guilds are found 
in certain parts of England. Explain the meaning of the name. 

7. Explain the causes that led to the downfall of the guilds. 

8. Explain why the domestic and not the guild system was introduced 
into this country. 

9. What are the economic advantages and disadvantages of the old- 
fashioned apprenticeship in a small shop under a master and several 
journeymen. 

10. Explain why the old-fashioned apprenticeship of seven years will 
never return. 

11. What is the length of the apprenticeship in England to-day for an 
apprentice dyer? 



LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING 

* A History of Commerce and Industry. Cheesman A. Herrick. 

(The essentials of history from the commercial and industrial 
point of view.) 

* Studies in the Evolution of Industrial Society. Richard T. Ely. 

(A general survey of industrial society and its evolution into 
present conditions.) 
** Industrial America. J. L. Loughlin. 

(A discussion of the general industrial situation in America.) 

* Evolution of the Training of the Worker in Industry. C. A. Prosser. 

National Education Association. Proceedings, 1915. 
(A discussion of the training of the worker.) 
** The Apprenticeship System in its Relation to Industrial Education. 
Bulletin United States Bureau of Education. 1908. 



HOW MEN HAVE BEEN TRAINED 27 

* Apprenticeship in American Trades Unions. J. M. Motley. 

(A description of apprenticeship regulated by trade unions.) 

* Value of a Thorough Apprenticeship to the Wage-Earner. W. B. Prescott. 

National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. Pro- 
ceedings, January, 1908. 

(A description of the apprentice training to-day.) 

* Trade Instruction in Large Establishments. J. F. Deeme. National 

Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. Proceedings, 
January, 1908. 

(A plan of trade instruction in a large railroad.) 
** English Apprenticeship and Child Labor. O. J. Dunlop. Studies in 
Economics and Political Science issued by the London School of 
Economics, No. 29. 

(The difficulties between the English apprenticeship and child 
labor.) 



CHAPTER IV 

DIFFERENT TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 

There are many types of industrial schools to meet the 
varied needs of industries and trades: the college grade or 
school of technology, the secondary industrial, part-time 
industrial, continuation-day industrial, trade schools, and 
corporation schools. 

A close examination of educational history will show us 
that we usually begin at the top of the ladder and work 
downward. This is due to the fact that the old system of 
education believed in educating a few minds to act as leaders 
and leave the masses uneducated. It was for this reason 
that universities preceded the common schools, and schools 
of technology preceded trade schools. 

While science had been introduced into some of the col- 
leges long before the nineteenth century, it was not until 
then that a systematic study of the applications of scientific 
discoveries to the practical affairs of every-day life was car- 
ried out by the establishment of the Royal Institute in Lon- 
don by Count Rumford. The aim of this institution was 
"the general diffusion of the knowledge of all men and useful 
improvement s , and teaching the application ." It contained 
workshops for blacksmiths, with forge and bellows, all sorts 
of models of machinery, and a score of mechanics. It grew 
into a higher institution, and became a great laboratory for 
the research of pure science. 

The United States did not establish technical schools for 
the training of engineers until the early part of the nine- 
teenth century. About this time the States were beginning 
to become thickly settled, and it was necessary to build 



DIFFERENT TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 29 

rivers and canals and to employ foreign experts and engi- 
neers from France. There was a great demand for our 
young men to become engineers, and some were sent to 
France to be educated. In order to meet this educational 
need a school of theoretical and applied science was founded 
at Troy, New York, in 1824. 

About the middle of the nineteenth century chemistry, 
physics, and geology had become very important sciences, 
and the colleges established departments for the teaching of 
each. The influence of the old course of study was such 
that these new subjects had not the same dignity, and were 
set aside in a separate school, as, the Sheffield Scientific 
School at Yale, the Lawrence Scientific School at Harvard, 
and the Chandler Scientific School at Dartmouth. At first 
these were schools of pure science, but later became engi- 
neering schools. 

In 1862 the United States, in spite of the fact that it was 
in the midst of the Civil War, realized the necessity for 
action. Congress in that year passed an act granting to 
each State thirty thousand acres of public lands or their 
equivalent, the income therefrom to be appropriated "to 
the endowment, support, and maintenance of at least one 
college where the leading object shall be, to teach such 
branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the 
mechanic arts, in order to promote the liberal and practical 
education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits 
and professions of life." Surely a noble object, and one 
which Congress has striven ever since to advance. 

About fifty years ago the Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology was founded "for the purpose of instituting and 
maintaining a school of industrial science, and aiding gen- 
erally, by suitable means, the advancement, development, 
and practical application of science in connection with arts, 
agriculture, manufactures, and commerce." From the be- 



30 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

ginning this institution has received aid from State and 
Nation. The Institute of Technology dealt and still deals 
with the most advanced workers, as is true of the Lawrence 
Scientific School, the Worcester Polytechnic, and other 
schools of the same type in the United States. 

England, while contributing more than any other country 
to scientific discoveries upon which technology is based, did 
not adopt technical education until 1884, when it was seen 
that the high place in engineering and manufacturing skill 
that England occupied was threatened by the Continental 
countries. The increased skill of the people on the Conti- 
nent was due in no small degree to the encouragement the 
Governments gave to schools of technology. 

The City and Guilds of London Institute for the Advance- 
ment of Technical Education is one of the institutions es- 
tablished by the English Government to develop technical 
skill in her engineering and manufacturing industries. It 
includes in its management the operation of three London 
colleges and a system of technological examination. 

The aim of the college grade school of technology is to 
provide a four-year course of study that will train men and 
women to become mechanical engineers, research chemists, 
designers, etc. The first two years comprise a general tech- 
nical training, with cultural studies, and the last two years 
specialization in one department. 1 

The training provided at present in our engineering 
schools of college grade is a splendid training for the expert 
and chief engineer. Fully ninety per cent of the men em- 
ployed in responsible positions in engineering do not require 
as complete an education as these schools give. A great 
deal of work done in engineering offices is of a nature that 
requires a fair knowledge of the standards of construction. 
In manufacturing plants most of the work has been stand- 
1 See page 201 for course of study. 



DIFFERENT TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 31 

ardized, and is repeated day after day, or year after year, so 
that much of the work of preparing boys for ninety per cent 
of the positions in the engineering works can be performed 
by a school with a two-year course. Pratt Institute of 
Brooklyn, New York, and the Wentworth Institute of Bos- 
ton, Massachusetts, give a two-year course in technology. 

Up to a few years ago, almost all of the institutions in this 
country that provided industrial education aimed to be of a 
collegiate rank. They provided a training for students over 
sixteen or seventeen years of age who had had a high-school 
education or its equivalent. Often the same courses were 
provided for evening instruction for those at work during the 
day. The education received in these schools was the high- 
est possible training in the useful arts. This education and 
training often exceeded the real educational needs of the 
responsible positions in commercial and industrial life. Lit- 
tle if any effort was made by those schools to supply techni- 
cal education of a secondary grade; that is, a simpler tech- 
nical education to the great mass of young people between 
fourteen and seventeen years of age who desire a practical 
education. 

This one-sided educational scheme was due to the tradi- 
tion that one must have a cultural before a technical educa- 
tion, and to the circumstance that at the time of the origin 
of the technical schools they were patterned after the exist- 
ing colleges. 

In 1876 the European Manual Training Exhibits at the 
Centennial Exhibition attracted the attention of a great 
many thoughtful people, manufacturers, etc. Committees 
were appointed to look into the advisability of having simi- 
lar work in our schools. They found that the industrial 
supremacy of European countries was due in no small de- 
gree to industrial or manual education. As the result of 
this investigation manual training high schools were estab- 



32 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

lished in different cities of the country. The St. Louis 
Manual Training School was established June 6, 1879, 
for instruction in mathematics, drawing, and the English 
branches of a high-school course and instruction and prac- 
tice in the use of tools. For the first time in America the 
age of admission to school shops was reduced to fourteen 
years of age. The Baltimore Manual Training School was 
opened in 1883 on the same plane as the regular high school. 
In order to meet all the demands of the public, the high 
school grew to be a cosmopolitan or general high school 
which offered courses in industrial and commercial work, 
normal training, general and classical education. It was 
the intention of the founders of this type of high school not 
to have it exclusively technical or commercial in character, 
but with an equal emphasis upon each course of education. 
It was believed that such a cosmopolitan high school would 
tend toward democracy in education, whereas specialized 
high schools would tend toward aristocracy and false notions 
of the value of other lines of school work. It was said that 
pupils attending schools exclusively academic in character, 
not uncommonly looked down upon those who were prepar- 
ing for manual or commercial pursuits. On the other hand, 
the high school offering all courses exemplifies the complete 
life of the community in which it exists and prepares for re- 
sponsible participation in that life. It gives the pupil an 
opportunity to observe and compare before making choice 
of the work to prepare him for his future life. The second- 
ary high school, furnishing an effective system of industrial 
and cultural courses, is an ideal plan. The experience up 
to date has shown that to work out this plan has been one 
of the difficult problems in school administration. The 
principal of a school usually attempts to impose the stand- 
ards of the cultural courses as far as possible on the indus- 
trial courses. The result is that the efficiency of the indus- 



DIFFERENT TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 83 

trial courses suffer, as the standards usually exclude or drive 
out the type of boy who is best fitted for industrial work. 1 

The tendency a few years ago in Massachusetts was to 
establish an independent industrial school with an inde- 
pendent principal and faculty in an independent building. 
It is true that not all communities can afford to support an 
independent industrial school; therefore the industrial de- 
partment in a high school is the type of industrial education 
that many small cities and towns must provide. 

The clearest thinkers on industrial education have re- 
peatedly stated that an industrial day school is an industrial 
school established to secure the following ends: 

A. Primarily to increase, through proper training of the 
worker before or after entrance, his efficiency in some 
trade or occupation. 

B. To train for better citizenship. 

C. To extend the general intelligence of the pupil. 2 

Very nearly all industrial schools and industrial depart- 
ments of a high school provide, for boys over fourteen years 
of age, instruction in wood-working, metal-working, print- 
ing, electrical work, etc., regardless of whether the principal 
industry of the town or city is textiles, tanning, boot and 
shoe manufacture, paper-making, etc. The reason for this 
is that all communities have some workers in wood- working, 
as house carpenters; workers in metals, as machinists; prin- 
ters; and that all other industries are so highly specialized 
and organized that every worker performs a single operation 
of manufacture that can be acquired in a short time. Then 
again the idea prevails that the factory occupations have 
not sufficient content of matter to justify a course of study 
in the school. 

There are over two hundred and seventy trades and in- 
1 See page 213. 2 See page 211 for course of study. 



34 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

dustries in the State of Massachusetts, a typical industrial 
State. The average industrial school, when first started, 
taught practically the same trades. On account of the 
great expense involved, there may have been some justifi- 
cation on the part of the public school authorities for not 
supplying industrial education at the entire expense of the 
taxpayers. But at the present time, with aid from both 
the National and State authorities, there is no reason why 
this training should not be provided for all workers. 

Experience shows that in an industrial school where the 
work is not carried on under real trade conditions, it is al- 
most impossible for a pupil to attain a practical skill and 
efficiency equal to that of a good workman in the trade. 
Therefore the work in an industrial school should be car- 
ried on under actual shop conditions as far as it is possible 
with the school organization. 

Day industrial schools should provide, in addition to the 
regular courses, which are two, three, and four years in trade 
training, short unit courses, extending from a few days to 
a month, which may be given to young people over sixteen 
years of age, that they may have training to fit them for some 
highly specialized occupation. These short courses may be 
called "short unit day courses," and consist of a sufficient 
number of lessons plus a sufficient amount of practical work 
to meet the need of a definite occupation. Short unit day 
courses will appeal to a great many young people who have 
neither the interest nor the ability to pursue a long course. 
To the author's mind short unit day courses, for pupils over 
sixteen, will be the solution of industrial education for the 
masses. 

The economical methods of production, particularly the 
workman's time as a factor in the cost of production, are 
difficult to demonstrate to a student, in a school conducted 
under the best conditions, where his wages do not depend 



DIFFERENT TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 35 

upon his actual productive ability. The skill required for a 
commercial product can only be understood to best advan- 
tage by a student when his product is put to commercial use 
and when he sees an incentive in the form of wages for his 
judgment and skill in producing it. Wherever possible the 
factory or shop should cooperate with the industrial school, 
so that the shop practice may be given in a factory or shop 
and the related technical and academic work may be given 
in the school. This may be done by the manufacturers set- 
ting aside a certain portion of a factory for the training of 
apprentices. 

It is clear that the most effective and efficient method of 
training young people for a trade work is by combining in 
some way actual shop experience with theoretical knowledge 
in the school. In this way one obtains the actual skill by 
participating in a commercial shop on a commercial arti- 
cle under commercial conditions, and the theory or related 
knowledge may be obtained in a school. Such a scheme of 
education is called the "cooperative" or "part-time" plan; 
the pupil spends one week in the industry and the next week 
at school. This cooperative plan has been adapted to high- 
school pupils who attend alternate weeks at school. While 
this plan has some advantages, it has also some disadvan- 
tages, as the average young man working at his trade is so 
constituted that he cannot benefit from such a plan. He is 
not able to profit by more than eight hours a week schooling. 
A plan offering from four to eight hours a week schooling 
to young working people is called "part-time" or "contin- 
uation" school. 

Evening industrial courses of college grade, secondary 
grades, are also provided for those already engaged in the 
trades. In addition trade-preparation courses are offered 
for young men in unskilled lines who desire to receive suffi- 
cient training in skill and trade knowledge to enter a skilled 
trade. 



36 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Outside of the industrial schools mentioned above, there 
are various systems of training beginners in the different in- 
dustries. Since the modern organization of industry is on 
the factory plan, where the manufacturer is concerned in 
turning out a product in the shortest time at minimum cost, 
there is a tendency to division of labor. Hand-power is 
being replaced to a great extent by machinery. The manu- 
facturer is no longer concerned with the training of workmen 
on a wholesale scale. He finds that on account of the sub- 
division of labor, the shifting of apprentices from one ma- 
chine to another in order to train them as all-around men, 
has a tendency to break up the efficient organization by les- 
sening the production per man. The journeyman working 
on piece work has not the time to teach the beginner, and 
in addition feels that the beginner may become a future 
rival by flooding the labor market and reducing the pay. 

The average American boy will not submit to a long ap- 
prenticeship of seven years of low wages in order to receive 
a thorough training. He inherits the spirit of the age, 
which is to receive the highest possible return for the least 
expenditure of labor. The result is that the American boy 
enters other fields, the distributing rather than the produc- 
tive branches of industry. Then again it is a question 
whether there is sufficient content in any trade as organized 
to-day to warrant a boy spending seven or even four years 
as an apprentice. Nevertheless, every manufacturer realizes 
that the progressive development of his line of manufacture 
demands the training of a certain number of skilled mechan- 
ics to be future foremen, etc. 

Apprentice schools are established by manufacturers to 
meet this need. They offer definite courses from two to five 
years in length. The work is both shop practice and theory. 
The shop practice is given in the shop under a foreman, and 
the theory or related trade and academic work is given in a 



DIFFERENT TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 37 

classroom not far from the shop, and on the employer's 
time. 1 

The economical method of production, particularly the 
workman's time, is a factor in the cost of production. An 
analysis of industry will show that production depends 
upon three factors, speed, accuracy, and fitness of the in- 
dividual worker. Speed and accuracy can be attained by 
mechanical practice. Fitness is the ability of the operator 
for that particular occupation, and depends in a large 
degree on the mental attitude of the operator toward his 
work. The proper attitude of the worker toward his work 
determines the proper planning and guidance of the work, 
so that the greatest return may be obtained for the energy 
expended by the worker. This means that the greatest in- 
dustrial efficiency can be obtained only when every worker 
is trained so as to have an interest in his work, which 
means appreciation of time, effort, and material, and this 
can be done only by putting every one through a course of 
training that will give both practice and theory, as to the 
best method of performing the work, reason for each step, 
knowledge of materials used, and care of self while perform- 
ing the work. To illustrate : A cotton manufacturer desires 
to employ a number of pickers and carders. A number of 
men who have recently arrived in this country, with no 
mill experience, apply for the positions. The usual method 
of training these men consists of placing them at work im- 
mediately, with a few directions in the form of "don'ts" — 
"Don't place your hand here," etc. The operator soon 
becomes interested in his work and forgets the directions 
given to him, unintentionally places his hand on the wrong 
part of the machine and finds that he has lost a finger or 
two. He is sent to a hospital and the total cost to all con- 
cerned will average quite a sum. 

1 See page 235 for course of study. 



38 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

A more efficient plan of training would be to place him 
with others in a department or part of a mill set aside for a 
school, under the direction of an instructor, who will explain 
in simple language the purpose of the operation, how to op- 
erate the machine, the names of the different parts and the 
dangerous parts of the machine. In the course of a week 
under this form of instruction, the individual will become 
a more efficient worker, at less expense to the manufacturer 
and to himself. Well-trained labor will handle efficient tools 
and machines, so as to reduce the waste and increase the 
production. 

In order to meet this difficulty some manufacturers have 
instituted a shorter course of apprenticeship which trains 
for a narrow range of work and fits only for special lines. 
The worker may be called a helper, assisting the journey- 
man, performing unskilled work and watching the operations. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 

1. Is it possible for a young man to-day to become an efficient mechani- 
cal engineer by working under an experienced mechanical engineer 
without attending day or evening courses? If it is possible, why is it 
not carried out to-day. 

2. Why was the development of college grade technical schools slower in 
England than on the Continent and in the United States? 

3. Compare the training of a mechanical engineer in France with that 
of the training received in the United States. 

4. England has very few students attending day technical classes com- 
pared to the number attending evening classes. Compare these con- 
ditions with those of America, and give the reasons for any differences. 

5. What advantage might be gained over the program of studies for me- 
chanical engineering in a college grade industrial school if a certain 
amount of practical experience were given at the outset and at inter- 
vals during the course? 

6. What are the advantages and disadvantages in giving technical in- 
struction in advance of practical experience? 

7. It has been suggested that students should enter professional schools 
— that is, a college industrial school — only after some practical ex- 
perience in the trade or industry. What are the advantages and dis- 
advantages of such a plan? 



DIFFERENT TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 39 

8. What is the attitude of the general high-school instructor to pupils in 
the industrial course? Do the industrial pupils measure up to the 
traditional standards of high-school pupils? 

9. Draw a diagram showing the different classes of men engaged in a 
large industry, and state the institution or type of school that is to 
give them the necessary training. 

10. Compare the type of young man found in a shop with the type of 
young man found in the drafting-room of an industry. 

11. Which type of boy in question 10 will conform to the standards of 
the regular high-school course? 

12. Is there a place for an all-day industrial school for boys between the 
ages of fourteen and sixteen? 

13. What are some of the difficulties to be overcome before a school system 
can cooperate with manufacturers in regard to training apprentices? 

14. What is the difference between a cooperative scheme of education and 
a continuation school? 

LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING 

* Manufacturers' Viewpoint of Industrial Education. C. R. Dooley. Na- 

tional Education Association. Proceedings, 1912. 

(A discussion of industrial education by an educator who has 
conducted schools for manufacturers.) 

* The Cooperative System of Industrial Training. A. D. Dean. National 

Education Association. Proceedings, 1910. 

(A discussion of the scheme of education between the shop and 
school.) 
** Continuation Schools. Edwin G. Cooley. National Education Associ- 
ation. Proceedings, 1912. 

(A discussion of the type of schooling for pupils who leave school 
at an early age.) 

* Continuation Schools. Board of Education of Massachusetts. Bulletin, 

1915. 

(Organization, courses of study and methods of instruction of 
continuation schools in Massachusetts.) 
** Needs and Possibilities of Part-Time Education. Board of Education 
of Massachusetts. Bulletin, 1913. 

(Investigation of the need of part-time education in the indus- 
trial cities of Massachusetts.) 

* Technical High School. G. H. North. National Education Association. 

Proceedings, 1918. 

(The aim and value of a technical high school.) 
** Trade Schools in Europe. F. L. Glynn. United States Bureau of Edu- 
cation. Bulletin issued in 1914. 

(A description of different types of technical and industrial 
schools as seen by Mr. Glynn.) 



40 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

** Industrial, Technical, and Art Education. Ontario Education Depart- 
ment. Bulletin issued in 1912. 

(A complete description of different types of industrial schools.) 

** Report of Committee on Place of Industries in Public Education. C. R. 
Richards. National Education Association. Proceedings, 1912. 

* (A general discussion on the aim and value of industrial education 
followed by a statement of the purpose of different industrial 
schools.) 

** Intermediate Industrial School. W. H. Elson. National Society for the 
Promotion of Industrial Education, 1909. 

(A discussion on the need and value of a lower grade industrial 
school to take care of children who are dissatisfied with the regular 
school work.) 

* The Fitchburg Plan of Cooperative Industrial Education. M. R. Mc- 

Cann. United States Bureau of Education. Bulletin No. 50, 1913. 
(A description of the first cooperative high-school course.) 



CHAPTER V 

ORGANIZATION OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 

The usual plan of organization for the college-grade indus- 
trial school, which is usually a private institution, is to have 
a director or president who is the chief executive officer; a 
course or curriculum head who has charge of each separate 
course; a head of each department in the school and a group 
of academic and technical teachers. Since the aim of this 
type of school is not to prepare journeymen mechanics, very 
few ordinary trade (shop) teachers are employed. 

Industrial education of secondary or lower grade is usually 
a part of the regular public school system and is supported 
by public taxation, with aid from State and National Gov- 
ernments. The chief executive officer in charge of all voca- 
tional work should be the superintendent of schools, in a 
small community, in order to avoid any friction between 
the different types of education. If the community is a 
large city, the control should be centered in a director or an 
assistant superintendent of schools appointed to this work. 

The director or assistant superintendent should have a 
number of assistants. A principal should be appointed for 
each building set apart for industrial training. Under the 
principal a number of heads of departments should be se- 
lected, to develop the different departments of the school. 
Three distinct classes of instructors are employed in an in- 
dustrial school, shop instructors, technical instructors, and 
academic instructors. 

The principal of an industrial school should possess the 
following qualifications; (a) a thorough academic training; 
(b) executive ability; (c) experience in public school work; 



42 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

(d) in sympathy with industrial education; (e) a distinct in- 
dustrial point of view; (/) sufficient technical and practical 
knowledge to administer industrial work. 

The head of a department in an industrial school should 
have executive ability, previous experience as an instructor 
in the department or trade in which he is to act as head, and 
sufficient technical and pedagogical knowledge to administer 
the work of the department and to assist teachers in plan- 
ning the subject-matter to be taught. 

A shop instructor should possess the following qualifica- 
tions: (a) knowledge of his trade as full as that of a skilled 
journeyman; (6) knowledge of the technical method in use 
in the trade, together with a command of its drawing, mathe- 
matics, and science; (c) general education not less than that 
represented by an elementary-school graduation or its equiv- 
alent; (d) technique of teaching and school administration; 
(e) application of the principles of teaching to industrial 
school problems; (/) personal appearance, that will appeal 
to boys; (g) not less than twenty-five nor more than forty- 
five years when he enters the work. 

The technical teacher, sometimes called the instructor 
of related subjects (applied mathematics, applied science, 
and drawing), should possess the following qualifications: 
(a) trade equipment, understand the processes of the trade, 
and the tools that are used; (b) some experience as a teacher; 
(c) a general education equal to a high-school education or 
its equivalent; (d) special training in the subject or subjects, 
two years beyond the highest grade of the industrial school; 
(e) ability to apply these subjects in a practical way to the 
trade problems; (/) personal appearance that will appeal 
to boys. 

The academic teacher, sometimes called teacher of non- 
industrial subjects, should possess the following qualifica- 
tions: (a) appreciative knowledge of trade and industrial 



ORGANIZATION OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 43 

conditions, such as a knowledge of common tools, machines, 
and processes of the trade; (6) experience as a wage-earner 
in some trade; (c) natural mechanical ability; (d) general 
education equal to two years beyond the high school; (e) 
ability to use material drawn from the trades in teaching 
such subjects as civics, economics, industrial history, and 
English; (/) personality that wins the respect of boys. 

In addition to the above, teachers in trade classes should 
be familiar with the ordinary principles of teaching, how to 
prepare a lesson, a course of study, and to present a lesson to 
a group. They should know how to teach economically and 
effectively, when to use the group method, and when to use 
the individual method of instruction. The proper relation 
of the theory with practice, the uses of the blackboard, 
models, charts, pictures, displays, references to handbooks, 
journals, and the assignment of home lessons, are some of 
the essentials of the work that the teacher must handle. 

There are certain other personal qualifications that a 
successful teacher must have. He must be punctual and 
regular in attendance, have a pleasing personality, the abil- 
ity to bring the instruction to bear upon the work of the 
pupils, cooperation with the shops and factories, and the 
social qualities that will win the respect and confidence of 
the pupils so that they will attend school regularly. 

The average journeyman mechanic when placed in charge 
of a trade class usually lacks certain qualifications, such as 
the methods of presentation of the subject, knowledge of the 
theory, and an all-round knowledge of the trade. Experi- 
ence has shown that the foreman or overseer who has had a 
certain amount of executive or supervisory responsibility 
possessess the above qualifications better than the journey- 
man. Therefore trade teachers as a rule should be selected 
from the ranks of foremen rather than journeymen. The 
shop and technical teachers are the ones that give instruc- 



44 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

tion which directly improves the efficiency of the student in 
his trade and are often spoken of as industrial or vocational 
teachers. 

The academic teacher is considered, on the other hand, a 
non-industrial or non- vocational teacher. Experience shows 
that the academic teacher has a definite place in full-time 
vocational schools and the general and commercial contin- 
uation schools, but fails to fit into the industrial continua- 
tion and evening trade classes. This may be due to the fact 
that pupils that attend the last two types of schools have 
very practical minds and are unwilling to study or pursue 
systematically the ordinary academic subjects. The in- 
struction in English and civics must be imparted in an inci- 
dental manner from time to time, while the students are 
studying the technical subjects underlying their trades. 

The building used for an industrial school may be either 
a factory or a schoolhouse renovated. If a new building is to 
be erected, it is advisable to have the academic department 
in the front, and in the rear the shops; the front of the build- 
ing will be of regular school construction, and the rear part 
of mill construction; that is, brick walls and the timbers 
exposed. 

An industrial school equipment should include equipment 
equal to that of commercial shops. This may appear to be 
a difficult task, but nevertheless an effort should be made to 
have a variety of tools and machines. Many technical 
schools have made a great mistake in providing a large num- 
ber of tools and machines of one kind, thus sacrificing the 
variety of machines. 

It is advisable to have an industrial school dominated by 
the needs of industry. Therefore every school should have 
advisory committees composed of members representing 
local trades, industries, and occupations. Experience 
teaches that these committees should be composed of repre- 



ORGANIZATION OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 45 

sentative people with little knowledge of the details of edu- 
cational work. They may be organized by departments into 
committees of two or three members, a representative of or- 
ganized labor or employees, employers, and a representative 
citizen. These committees, as their name suggests, are 
advisory, and may render very effective service to the school. 

The school year of a day vocational school varies from 
forty weeks of instruction, thirty-five hours per week, five 
days of seven hours each, to fifty weeks, forty-four hours of 
instruction per week, of five and one half days of eight hours 
each. About eighty per cent of the total time should be de- 
voted to industrial instruction, and about fifty per cent of 
this time should be devoted to productive shop-work, under 
the direct control of the school. This leaves twenty per cent 
for general education. 

One of the most difficult problems in the administration 
of a day industrial school is the large mortality factor. The 
trade course of an existing industrial school is two, three, or 
four years in length, giving an all-round training in the prac- 
tice and theory of the trade plus a good general education. 
A large number of pupils enter the school in the fall, and 
after they have attended about six months or more, and 
have learned the names of the tools, and are able to perform 
one or two of the operations of the trade, they leave to se- 
cure a position. It is the opinion of the author that this is 
due to one or more of the following causes: lack of proper 
organization of courses, such as short unit courses preparing 
definitely for some occupation in the semi-skilled trades; 
lack of proper encouragement from the parents of the boy 
while he is attending the school; and the narrow view of the 
boy who cannot place deferred above immediate returns. 
Instead of the members of the family encouraging him to 
finish his course at school, they allow him to enter a posi- 
tion with a large initial wage but with very little future. 



46 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

In order to increase the holding power of the industrial 
school without modifying the course of study, a number of 
industrial educators have set up a process of selection at 
registration, admitting pupils of high-school qualifications 
who will remain in school and finish the course. A large 
number of industrial departments of high schools have not 
been successful in training boys for the productive side of 
industry because they have set up the requirements, such as 
scholarship, etc., that exclude a group of young people who 
would make excellent workers. The graduates of these 
schools enter the productive side of industry, and remain 
for a few years, and then become draftsmen, salesmen, etc., 
in mechanical lines. They fail to remain in that phase of 
industry for which they have been trained. The training 
for the distributing side of industry can be given in the regu- 
lar technical high school or corporation course, supplemented 
by a proper shop observation and experience, as outlined on 
page 207, more efficiently than in an industrial course. 

The problem of holding pupils in a day industrial school 
can be solved if we study the type of the great mass of pro- 
ductive workers and adapt a short unit course to meet their 
needs. We find that usually they fail to meet the require- 
ments of the elementary school above the sixth grade, but 
nevertheless they possess certain physical and mental quali- 
ties, such as muscular strength and mechanical intelligence, 
that can be trained by imitation to meet the needs of the 
ordinary occupations of industry and trade. It is from this 
class that industry must recruit its permanent workers. 

The organization of part-time or continuation industrial 
classes will be very similar to the regular day industrial 
school, except that the instruction must be more intensely 
practical and closely allied to the shop. The practical work 
in the shop must be the basis of the related trade knowledge 
in the school. This requires the services of a teacher, called 



ORGANIZATION OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 47 

a coordinator, to tabulate the shop materials, hand and 
power tools, shop processes, and other trade activities, that 
the classroom teacher may know the content to impart. 

The organization of an apprentice school consists of a 
supervisor of apprentices, assistant supervisor, shop fore- 
men, and instructors. The supervisor of apprentices is 
directly responsible for all general problems affecting the 
apprentices and supervises the school and shop training. 
The assistant supervisor is in direct charge of the school and 
is responsible to the supervisor for its successful operation. 

The shop foreman of apprentices is in charge of the in- 
struction in the different phases of shop-work, and the 
proper application of shop schedules. The shop instructor 
of apprentices acts as an assistant to the shop foreman and 
is responsible for the shop instruction of apprentices. 

The school instructors conduct the apprentice school in- 
struction as outlined by the supervisor of apprentices. The 
organization of an apprentice or corporation school is very 
similar to that of the regular industrial school, except in the 
names of the officials of the school as described above. 

The problems and difficulties are the same as those previ- 
ously discussed. Of course it must be borne in mind that 
when a corporation is conducting a school, it is primarily in 
the interest of the industry, and the corporation feels that 
it is only bound to give sufficient academic education, or, 
better still, the related trade knowledge, to make the appren- 
tice proficient in his trade. Little if any attention is given 
to civics, training of citizenship, and formal English. 

Application for apprenticeship is made on a form requiring 
answers to many questions. This application is looked over, 
and the apprentice is generally given an oral, written, and 
physical examination. Wherever possible, preference is 
given to sons of employees. The apprenticeship is usually 
three or four years in length. 



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THE JOHN DOE COMPANY 

NEW YORK CITY, N.Y. 
Terms of Apprenticeship 

1. Applicants for apprenticeship must not be less than 16 years of age. They 
must be physically sound, of good moral character, and have received an educa- 
tion equivalent to that required for graduation from the public grammar school 
or better. 

2. Application must be made in person. If accepted the applicant's name 
will be registered and due notice will be given when he will be required to com- 
mence work. 

3. The first 576 hours shall constitute a term of trial. If the apprentice shall 
during this period prove satisfactory and shall before the expiration thereof exe- 
cute together with some other responsible party an agreement in the form here- 
to annexed, then his apprenticeship shall date from the beginning of the term 
of trial and shall continue for the full term, unless sooner terminated, as here- 
inafter stated. 

4. During the trial period the apprentice will be loaned the necessary shop 
tools and class-room materials. On completion of trial term the set of shop tools 
shall thereupon become the property of the Apprentice. 

5. Apprentice will be required to serve for a term of three or four years, 
each to consist of 2400 hours, including about 200 hours in the school room. 

6. Apprentices shall make up lost time at the expiration of each year, at the 
rate of wages paid during said year ; and no year of service shall commence un- 
til the apprentice shall have fully made up all the time lost in the preceding year. 

7. The Company reserves the right whenever the state of business demands 
it, to shorten the hours of labor or whenever for any reason it shall stop the work- 
ing, or suspend wholly or in part; and the making up of lost time in this way 
shall be at the discretion of the Company. 

8. The Apprentices will be required to perform their duties with punctuality, 
fidelity and diligence : and to conform to the rules and regulations which are, or 
may be, adopted from time to time for the good government of the shop ; and 
the Company reserves the right to itself, at its sole discretion to terminate an 
agreement, and discharge the apprentice from further service for any non-con- 
formity with rules and regulations, want of diligence to his business, or im- 
proper conduct in or out of the shop. 

9. In case of discharge, or in the event that said apprentice shall abandon his 
apprenticeship before the expiration thereof, without the consent of said Com- 
pany, the apprentice shall forfeit all wages then earned and unpaid. 



APPRENTICE AGREEMENT 

THIS AGREEMENT is made this day of 19.... 

between the JOHN DOE COMPANY, Incorporated, doing business in NEW 
YORK, N.Y., hereinafter known as " Company " and 

of 

hereinafter known as " Apprentice," and 

of hereinafter known as " Guardian," whose relation- 
ship to the Apprentice is that of 

For the purpose of acquiring the Art or Trade of MACHINIST AND TOOL- 
MAKER said hereby becomes an Apprentice to 

the Company and the Company hereby accepts him subject to the terms herein 
stated. 

The Apprentice and his Guardian hereby promise that the Apprentice shall 
conform to and abide by all the provisions of this agreement, and shall faithfully 
serve the Company during the full period of time named in this agreement. 

The Apprentice agrees during the period of his apprenticeship to do all in 
his power to learn said art or trade and earnestly and loyally to promote the in- 
terests of the Company. He also agrees to pursue classroom studies when they 
are required and arranged for by the Company and in that case to do a reason- 
able amount of home-study in preparation thereof. 

It is agreed by the Apprentice and his Guardian that the Company shall have 
thejright at any time to discharge the Apprentice for lack of diligence, indifference 
to business, inability for the works, disobedience of rules and regulations of the 
Company, or improper conduct in or out of working hours and to suspend him if 
the state of business should demand it. 

In consideration of the agreements on the part of the company herein con- 
tained the said Apprentice agrees that he will pay the Company the sum of §25.00 — 
said sum to be paid by said Apprentice at the expiration of the term of trial re- 
ferred to in said «• Terms of Apprenticeship," this to be returned to the Appren- 
tice upon graduation. 

The Company agrees to train and instruct the Apprentice in said art or trade 
and to pay him compensation as specified in this agreement for his services as 
Apprentice. The Company also agrees that if the Apprentice shall remain in its 
service for the full period of his apprenticeship, including whatever period is 
required to make up lost time, and shall in every way comply with the terms of 
this agreement, to present to the Apprentice at the termination of his Appren- 
ticeship a bonus of ONE HUNDRED DOLLARS (§100.00) and a Certificate of 
Apprenticeship signed by an officer of this Company. 

This agreement shall cover a period of FOUR years including a trial period 
of 576 working hours. Each year shall consist of 2400 working hours. 

The apprentice shall receive from the Company during the period of appren- 
ticeship the following compensation, to wit : — 

15 cents per hour for the first year. 
18 M '* " " " second year. 
22 •■ « « " " third year. 
26 u ♦« " " " fourth year. 
John Doe C ompany, Inc. 

APPRENTICE 
PER 

GUARDIAN 

Signature must be written in full and with ink. 



50 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

During the course the pupil receives a training in the 
practice and the theory of the trade. The practice is given 
in the shop and the theory is given in the school. The hours 
are the same as for the journeyman, except for four hours a 
week, when the apprentice attends school on company time 
at the regular rate of pay. At the end or expiration of ap- 
prenticeship, those who have satisfactorily completed the 
course receive a certificate, signed by the proper officials of 
the company. They are retained in the employ of the com- 
pany at the specified rate, or at a higher rate, if the ability 
and service justify same. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 

1. Explain why few shop teachers are employed in an industrial school 
of college grade. 

2. Are instructors in schools of technology inclined to explain principles 
in terms of "shop" or technical language? 

3. How would you proceed to select a teacher for applied science in a 
day industrial school? 

4. Why is it necessary for the principal and instructors in a secondary 
school to have a sympathetic understanding of boys? 

5. Is it possible to have the same rigid standard in a coSperative indus- 
trial class, and hold the pupils as in the regular high school? 

6. Why is it desirable to defer industrial education until the end of the 
period of compulsory general education, fourteen years of age? 

7. Some instructors in trade and industrial schools claim you cannot 
teach a trade to a boy until he reaches the age of sixteen. Why? 

8. What objection may be made against teaching a child of ten to be a 
textile worker "piecer"? 

9. Does a course in civics assist industrial training? If so, to what 
extent? 

10. Should industrial and liberal education be combined? State the 
advantages and disadvantages of such a plan. 

11. How should the time be divided between industrial and liberal 
education? 

12. Should studies in an industrial course be alternated by hours, as in 
the regular high school, or shall the day be so divided that one half 
may be given to shop practice? 



ORGANIZATION OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 51 



LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING 

* Statement of Policies of Federal Board for Vocational Education. Bulle- 

tin no. 1. 

(A number of fundamental principles of vocational education.) 

* Emergency Training in Shipbuilding. Evening and Part-Time Classes 

for Shipyard Workers. Bulletin no. 3. 

(Unit courses in shipbuilding showing how short, intensive courses 
t- may be used in training workmen.) 

* Trade and Industrial Education. Bulletin no. 17. 

(A very concise statement of the organization and administration 
of industrial schools.) 

* Part-Time Trade and Industrial Schools. Bulletin no. 19. 

(A complete description of the organization and courses in part- 
time industrial schools.) 

* Buildings and Equipment for Schools and Classes in Trade and Industrial 

Subjects. Bulletin no. 20. 

(A description with illustrations of the growth of different indus- 
trial schools. Kinds of buildings and equipment.) 

All the above may be obtained from the Federal Board for Vocational 
Education, Washington D.C. 

* Organization of the Pennsylvania Railroad Apprentice System. Circular 

published by the Pennsylvania Railroad. 

(A very elaborate organization of apprentice schools.) 
** Problems of Industrial Education under Public Administration. Frank 
V. Thompson. National Society for the Promotion of Industrial 
Education. Proceedings, 1916. 

(Discussion of some administrative problems that have arisen in 
the administration of schools in Boston.) 
** Requisites of the Efficient Teacher in Industrial Schools. G. M. Gering. 
National Educational Association. Proceedings, 1911. 

(A discussion of the qualifications of an efficient teacher in an 
industrial school.) 



CHAPTER VI 

ORGANIZATION OF EVENING INDUSTRIAL COURSES 

The history of trade and technical instruction shows that 
originally organized technical instruction consisted of engi- 
neering, mathematics, drawing, science (theoretical and 
laboratory practice), and was provided for young appren- 
tices during the evening. This was due to the tradition that 
all students were expected to be working under some form 
of apprenticeship in the trades and industries and received 
the practical training in the shops during the day. The 
first form of technical and trade instruction was naturally 
planned to supplement practical experience by giving the 
related trade knowledge in the evening. England to-day 
practically provides very nearly all the technical instruction 
in the evening classes on this basis. 

While it is necessary to provide well-trained workers, it is 
also necessary to provide employers, managers, and foremen 
having the proper appreciation of the value of the techni- 
cal training of workers. The higher degree of training 
necessary for the worker, the greater the need of raising the 
standards of the managers, foremen, etc. Therefore it is 
necessary to have different grades of evening technical or 
industrial schools or, as they are sometimes called, exten- 
sion courses, as well as day schools. 

Evening industrial extension courses or evening industrial 
courses may be of the same grades as the day industrial 
school, college grade and secondary. The college grade eve- 
ning industrial school aims to bring the systematic study of 
applied science within the reach of young men with a high- 
school education or its equivalent who are following indus- 



EVENING INDUSTRIAL COURSES 53 

trial pursuits, and who desire to fit themselves for higher 
positions, but are unable to attend courses during the day. 
The Lowell School of Foremanship represents an evening 
technical school of college grade. 1 

Evening school instruction has been, and probably will be 
for a long time to come, the only feasible form of organized 
public instruction for working boys and men. In order to 
show the relation between general evening schools or evening 
schools of liberal instruction and vocational evening instruc- 
tion (including industrial classes, given under the public 
school system), it may be well to outline a plan showing the 
exact relation. 

Evening instruction under these two divisions may be 
outlined as follows: 

A. General or liberal education. 

I. Regular elementary grade schools for those wishing 

to complete the elementary school course. 
II. General course (ungraded) for 

a. Illiterates. 

b. Foreigners. 

HI. Regular high-school courses for those wishing to com- 
plete the high-school work along the following lines : 

a. College preparatory course. 

b. Commercial course. 

c. Classical course. 

d. Technical course: 

1. Courses for boys who desire to be "handy." 

2. General technical course (technical train- 
ing to enter a skilled line of work). 

IV. Recreational courses. 

B. Vocational courses. 

I. Trade preparatory courses : 

Desire of sufficient training to enter from a blind- 
alley to a skilled employment. 
II. Trade extension courses. 



See page 204 for course of study. ' 



54 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

In addition to the college grade, secondary and inter- 
mediate industrial classes should be established. The sec- 
ondary class is for those who desire to learn more about the 
practice and theory of the trade. The intermediate class 
is for beginners who are in unskilled lines and who desire 
to learn sufficient practice about a skilled trade to obtain 
a position. The secondary evening industrial classes are 
sometimes called trade classes or trade extension classes, and 
represent one of the most important divisions of industrial 
education. 

The organization of evening industrial classes should be 
under a principal or director, with a corps of shop and tech- 
nical instructors. The qualifications of the principal and 
instructors should be at least those required of the principal 
and instructors in day industrial schools. 

Since evening school work is exacting, only those teachers 
should be selected who are physically strong and robust. 
As all forms of evening instruction are more or less of a social 
problem, it is very important that teachers should be imbued 
with a real desire to assist their pupils, as well as to know the 
subject of instruction. They should know all the members 
of the class, be able to assist them with advice and to arouse 
the tired pupils by enthusiasm. All this requires a great 
deal of energy (physical) on the part of the teacher. 

Evening trade instructors should possess a trade training 
plus a combination of personal qualifications to deal wisely, 
cheerfully, and sympathetically with tired apprentices. It 
is customary to select evening instructors from the day 
school force. While this is often advisable in order to pre- 
vent teachers from having conflicts over equipment, it does 
not always give the best results. The most efficient day 
school teachers often fail to give the best results in evening 
classes. This is due to several reasons : evening trade pupils 
are usually tired apprentices who attend school with very 



EVENING INDUSTRIAL COURSES 55 

definite ideas as to what they require. They desire instruc- 
tion which will lead to definite needs, usually some deficiency 
in their daily occupation or a desire to secure a promotion. 
Therefore evening trade teachers require, first, a large social 
democratic spirit; second, the ability to interpret the needs 
and desires of the pupils who attend the evening schools. 

Trade extension courses have usually been planned as 
two-, three-, or four-year courses. Students have been 
placed in either the first, second, third, or fourth year 
according to their ability. The records of evening trade 
classes under the above organization have not been satis- 
factory. The mortality of students has been very great. 
Investigations have disclosed a number of weaknesses in the 
evening school organization, such as incompetent teachers, 
poor organization, classes not adapted to needs of pupils, etc. 

Apprentices and tradesmen demand that the instruction 
shall lead directly to the specific things they want to know. 
If they are obliged to spend a month or more on preliminary 
work, the value of which they do not immediately discover, 
they will soon become discouraged and leave. Then again, 
mechanics and other tradesmen who may, perhaps, have 
some reputation in their trades, and who wish to perfect 
themselves in certain technical lines, do not wish to be 
grouped with younger persons, feeling that such persons, 
having come recently from the public schools, are able to 
answer questions, use better English, and appear to better 
advantage than they. In other words, adults are often sen- 
sitive about the comparisons which the younger members 
are apt to make at their expense. Therefore, all trade stu- 
dents should be classified into vocational classes, according 
to their trades. This idea carries out the plan of the old 
trade guild of a few centuries ago. Each guild was formed 
for the purpose of social intercourse and mental stimulus. 
Each trade had its own guild, and the daily trade experiences 



56 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

of each member became the property of all members. Dis- 
cussions relating to the practices of their chosen trade occu- 
pied their attention. So to-day workmen have common 
trade interests, and should be grouped according to their 
occupations so that they may have an opportunity to talk 
over those interests. 

Since workers usually attend a technical class in order to 
satisfy a definite need, the instruction should be divided into 
a series of units, each unit representing a definite trade 
need. To illustrate : a machine-shop course may be divided 
into the following unit courses : 

1. Lathe work, and the use of measuring 
• instruments. 

2. Screw-cutting. 

3. Planer and shaper operating. 

4. Milling-machine operating. 

5. Tool and die work. 

6. Jigs, fixtures, and machine construction. 

7. Machine-shop mathematics. 

8. Blue-print reading and machine drawing 

for machinists. 

9. Tool design. 
10. Tool forging. 

Each unit course may consist of sixteen lessons of two 
hours each distributed over eight weeks. An applicant may 
enter any one of the above unit courses and meet his imme- 
diate need. He may desire to continue in other unit courses 
after he has seen the value of his first course. 

Of course it is possible to have full courses composed of 
multiple units. There are some students who desire to pur- 
sue a vocational course covering from two to four years. 
Therefore unit courses should be arranged in sequence 
so that it is possible for a student to obtain a complete 
knowledge of the trade by attending a number of years. . 



EVENING INDUSTRIAL COURSES 57 

Evening trade classes present so many new situations and 
new problems to be solved that it is necessary and very es- 
sential that the faculty should have frequent discussions: 
daily lesson outlines on mimeographed sheets, the problems 
prepared by the teachers and used as a guide and a summary 
by the pupils. Pupils in evening trade extension classes 
should not be graded or grouped as are the regular pupils in 
the evening schools. An effort should be made to determine 
whether a pupil can profit by the course. Regularity of 
attendance should be insisted upon, and absences excused 
only on account of sickness or work. If a pupil fails to 
attend regularly seventy-five per cent of the evenings, he 
should be dropped, and should not be reinstated until the 
opening of the next unit course. Trade classes should not 
be in session over two evenings a week, and those evenings 
should not be successive. An individual card should be 
kept for every member of the class. One side of the card 
should contain the history of the pupil, and on the reverse 
side the attendance, the amount of work done, and the 
time devoted to each project. At the end of the year these 
records should be transferred to a larger card, called a life 
card, which becomes a permanent record. 

In order to make short unit courses successful it is abso- 
lutely necessary to have the courses properly advertised. 
This brings up the very important question of the advertise- 
ment of trade extension courses. These courses should be 
widely advertised through circulars distributed to mechanics 
and tradesmen, through the daily newspaper, and by means 
of posters placed in conspicuous positions in the shops and 
factories. Large, attractive posters should be placed on the 
walls near the exits and entrances of shops and factories, 
railroad stations, ferry slips, clubs, unions, and schools. 
Notices should appear frequently in technical journals, in 
special bulletins, and in papers issued by large corporations. 



58 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Slides showing the value of trade extension courses should 
appear in the moving-picture houses. Once a year the 
school should have a public day ; that is, the school should be 
open to the public with the equipment and plant running. 
The principal and instructors should be present to explain 
to the visitors the different departments in the school. An 
evening at the close of the term should be devoted to an ex- 
hibition of the work accomplished and a special invitation 
should be extended to journeymen and apprentices. In 
addition — the principal should address various civic bodies 
and labor unions on the value and need of trade extension 
classes, and make personal visits, regularly, to the local 
shops and industries, and meet the foremen and overseers 
and ask them to encourage the workers to attend the evening 
trade classes. It is very important that the wording of all 
circulars, posters, etc., should be expressed in a concise, at- 
tractive form. To illustrate; instead of shop mathematics, 
use arithmetic for machinists, arithmetic for carpenters, etc. 

A deposit should be required for admittance to trade ex- 
tension courses, It is a sign of good faith and is a guarantee 
against irregular attendance, breakage, stealing, and misuse 
of materials. This deposit should be returned at the end of 
the term if the pupil has attended regularly, has properly 
used materials, and returned books and instruments. A fee 
of one dollar for each course would be sufficient. 

In order to maintain a uniform attendance it is a good plan 
to have various employers visit the school and make their 
appearance on the platform before the assembled classes. 
An effort should be made to have employers address the 
students and show the value of this type of education, enu- 
merating if possible personal references. A list of employees 
who have attended the school, with a record of their prog- 
ress and attendance, should be sent to employers, so that 
they can reward in a substantial way the attendance at the 



EVENING INDUSTRIAL COURSES 59 

trade school, by promotion, some form of preference, or by 
increase in wages. 

When a student is absent a card should be sent to him, 
and if he does not respond, a letter should be sent to his em- 
ployer or a visit made to the shop. 

Since there are many occupations that are highly special- 
ized and which do not possess sufficient content to give a 
course of study over several years, it is necessary to provide, 
in addition to the evening trade courses, a form of recreation 
that will appeal to the working pupils. In order to carry 
on this work successfully, trained teachers should be pro- 
vided who are able to mingle easily with working people, 
and, above all, they should have the power of leadership for 
all forms of recreational work, from free play and folk-danc- 
ing to clubs and lectures. This work requires a strong 
leader, a person who leads but keeps himself as one of the 
crowd, thus putting the leadership as little in evidence as 
possible. These activities are of tremendous value in in- 
culcating the art of cooperation, civic and social responsi- 
bility, and social good feeling, and should have their share 
of attention in evening schools especially in industrial dis- 
tricts. Pupils should be taught as far as possible to use 
their own homes for amusements. The schools should have 
rooms, halls, gymnasiums, etc., with furniture and supplies 
for games, reading-rooms, recreation-rooms, and moving- 
pictures. Classes should be arranged so as to accommodate 
a group or groups that have corresponding interests. Ath- 
letic games should group together those best suited to play 
together. Table games and story-telling and folk-dancing 
all need grading, in a sense, so as to keep a relatively keen 
interest. 1 

Intermediate evening trade classes are sometimes called 
evening trade preparatory classes, and are for those who 
1 See page 302 for course of study. 



60 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

desire to enter a skilled trade. Since the students in the 
trade preparatory classes have not had any trade experience, 
most of the instruction should be in the shop. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 

1. A number of prominent English technical school educators claim that 
it is difficult to obtain a large enrollment of day students in technical 
schools. Give some of the reasons why this condition exists. 

2. What are the reasons for the increased demand for evening schools 
during the last few years? 

S. Is an evening course in machine-shop theory more effective than a 
correspondence course in the same subject? Why? 

4. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of short unit courses cov- 
ering a number of evenings, and full courses covering two years or 
more. 

5. Suggest evening courses for cotton-mill workers. 

6. Suggest evening courses for electrical workers. 

7. Explain why evening trade instruction for young people on the Con- 
tinent of Europe is not popular. Compare the length of the working 
day on the Continent of Europe with that of the United States. 

8. How can evening school teachers of trade subjects be kept in inti- 
mate contact with the practical requirements of the trades they are 
teaching? 

9. What is the most effective means of securing (a) evening shop teachers, 
(b) evening technical teachers? 

10. What is the purpose of an advisory board for an evening industrial 
school? How may they be selected? 

11. What is the most effective method of giving evening instructors trade 
experience? 

12. What are the agencies available for industrial education in the average 
community? 

13. What are the qualifications required for a director of (a) an evening 
preparatory trade school; (b) a continuation school; (c) an evening 
trade school? 

14. What are the qualifications required for a head of a machine-shop 
department in (a) an evening trade school; (b) a continuation school? 

LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING 

** Hot can the Evening School Bett Med the Xeeds of the Wage-Worker ? 
W. A. O'Leary. National Society for the Promotion of Industrial 
Education. Bulletin. 



EVENING INDUSTRIAL COURSES 61 

** Evening Schools, their Purpose and Limitations. John L. Shearer. Na- 
tional Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. Bulletin. 
(A discussion of the purpose of evening schools and how far they 
are meeting the purpose.) 
** Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere. M. Sadler. 
(A very complete description of continuation schools.) 



CHAPTER VII 

AN INDUSTRIAL SURVEY 

It is necessary to experiment in industrial education, as 
in other lines, to make progress. In order to work intelli- 
gently, it is necessary to profit by the results of other com- 
munities, and to obtain data upon which to experiment. 
Therefore, before establishing any system of industrial edu- 
cation, it is desirable to make a number of investigations or 
surveys for the purpose of determining just what kinds of 
industrial training are required. 

The main questions to be answered by a survey are: 

1. To what extent is there a need for industrial education in the 
community ? 

2. To what extent are the public schools, private agencies, and 
apprenticeship systems meeting the need? 

3. What kinds of industrial training are needed? 

4. How can cooperation be arranged between the schools and the 
trades and industries? 

A thorough study should be made of all the industries in 
the community to determine the following questions: 

1. Whether there is a content of technical knowledge or skill in 
any job that cannot be acquired through routine work for 
which special instruction is needed. 

2. If so, what is it? 

3. Whether it can best be imparted by provisions inside the 
industry. 

4. If not, whether it is worth while to provide such instruction 
through outside agencies. 

5. If this is true, whether such instruction shall take the form of — 

a. All day industrial schools. 

b. Trade schools. 

c. Part-time industrial classes. 

d. Evening classes. 



AN INDUSTRIAL SURVEY ' 63 

6. Whether there are any jobs for which it is not desirable either 

to direct the youth or to train him at public expense. 
, 7. What number of new workers could be prepared for any job, 
if it has a teachable content, without overstocking the market? 

8. What kind of equipment as to age and physical and mental 
assets should the worker have for the job? 

9. To what extent does the industry select its workers for any 
job so as to secure those best adapted to it? 

The answers to the above questions will show the types 
and extent of the schools needed, the courses of study to be 
followed, and the equipment and try-out necessary to carry 
through the aims and purposes. 

It is coming to be recognized that in some industries the 
training of the workers should be as much a matter of trade 
agreements as hours of labor, scale of wages, grievance 
boards, and other matters which ultimately and vitally con- 
cern both the employer and employee. These are dealt 
with by means of a joint agreement known as the "Pro- 
tocol." Trade agreements may be worked out covering the 
following: 

1. The conditions under which new workers are to be trained and 

received into the trade or occupation. 
%. The credit toward the period of apprenticeship to be given 

any course of training in the school either before or after 

employment. 
3 - The training in schools as well as shop to be required of the 

apprentices after employment. 
4. The preference given to local and trained workers in hiring 

and promoting in the trade and occupations. 
' 5. Possibilities and arrangements for instruction during the dull 

season periods of trades. 

As a matter of efficiency every school system should take 
account of the social, economic, industrial, and educational 
conditions in the community. Data should be at hand and 
kept up to date. The superintendent or assistant superin- 
tendent should be able to interpret the data collected and 



64 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

use them to advantage in developing the school system. 
The following suggestive outline may be used by attendance 
officers, investigators, and social workers in obtaining the 
information : 

. 1. Facts about the people. (While this may be somewhat tob 
inclusive as a major division, it is used here in the restricted 
sense of a single locality.) 

a. Population extent. The whole program will depend 
much upon the size of the community. 

b. Migration. That is to say, whether or not the popula- 
tion of the city is stable or movable. 

c. Conditions as to type. 

1. White or colored. 

2. Native or foreign-born. - 

d. Illiteracy. 

2. Economic factors. 

o. Tax-rate, local and State; the whole tax burden. 
6. The indebtedness of the town or city. 

c. Conditions of waste in the expenditure of all public 
moneys. 

d. Possibilities for effecting economics by a reorganization 
of the present system of education. 

e. The amount of school funds, from whatever source, 
available for local use. 

3. Industrial factors. 

o. Apprenticeship. 

(1) How extended. 

(2) Lack produced what result. 

(3) How to supply lack. 

(4) Not needed because of type of labor employed, 
mature workers only, etc. 

b. Whether there is a content of technical knowledge or 
skill in any job that cannot be acquired through routine 
work, and for which special instruction is needed. 

(1) If so, what is it? 

(2) Whether it can be best imparted by provision in- 
side the industry. 

(3) If not, whether it is worth while to provide for such 
instruction through outside agencies. 



AN INDUSTRIAL SURVEY 65 

(4) If this is true, whether such instruction shall take 
the form of 

(a) All day industrial schools. 

(b) Trade schools. 

(c) Part-time industrial classes. 

(d) Evening classes. 

(5) Whether there are any jobs for which it is not 
desirable either to direct the youth or to train him 
at public expense. 

(6) What number of new workers could be prepared 
for any job, if it has a teachable content, without 
overstocking the market. 

(7) What kind of equipment as to age and physical 
and mental assets the workers should have for the 
job. 

(8) To what extent does the industry select its workers 
for any job so as to secure those best adapted to it. 

(9) Whether their market is overcrowded. 
4. School factors. 

a. The number of children leaving school each year. 

b. The nationality, age, and schooling condition of those 
withdrawing. 

c. The economic condition of those withdrawing. 

d. The wages, number of jobs, kinds of work, and advance- 
ment of those withdrawing. 

e. Causes of retardation. 
/. Causes of withdrawal. 

g. Education after leaving school. 

h. Means of getting a job. 

i. Comparative amount of idleness of non-graduate, grad- 
uate, and high-school group. 

j. The aim, character, and extent of prevocational training 
in the elementary schools. 

k. The aim, character, and extent of manual training in 
elementary and high schools. 

I. The aim, character, and extent of the evening schools. 

Since the public school system is expected to train pupils 
of high-school age for the vocations in the trades and indus- 
tries, it follows as a corollary that this industrial instruction 



66 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

must be supplemented by industrial guidance. Otherwise 
the public schools may be flooding certain trades with 
young men, to an extent that there may be more applicants 
than positions to be filled. Such a condition would be harm- 
ful to society and to the student. Therefore the most effi- 
cient system of industrial education must include, as a 
preliminary course, industrial guidance, information and 
direction to young people, in order that they may be dis- 
tributed vocationally so as not to have an excess of human 
talent in any one field. 

In the early history of the race, it was the custom to place 
the growing boy at work with his father, so that he might be 
taught from the experiences of his father. During the Mid- 
dle Ages the training in the apprenticeship was a direct pre- 
liminary to his trade. To-day parents do not care to have 
the children follow the father's occupation, on account of 
the feeling that the children should do better than the father. 
This is a serious mistake because children sometimes do not 
do as well as their fathers, and if they followed their fathers, 
they would be imbued with the industrial atmosphere and 
features of the trade. 

Years ago, when each community was small, the indus- 
tries and trades were open books to each boy. It was not 
unusual, as we see from the life of Benjamin Franklin, for a 
father to take his son at the age of twelve to the different 
shops, to see the men at work and to talk to the master- 
workmen. Comenius speaks in a way of industrial guidance, 
when he says, in speaking of the true significance of man- 
ual occupations as a factor in education, that children 
should learn the most important principles of what goes on 
in the world around them, so that any special inclination 
toward things of this kind may assert itself with greater 
ease later on. 

The responsibility of preparing a young person for a voca- 



AN INDUSTRIAL SURVEY 67 

tion for which he is fitted physically and temperamentally 
will be one of the most serious duties imposed upon the pub- 
lic school system, because eventually it means that the prob- 
lem of supply and demand of labor and the problem of dis- 
tribution of human talent will be placed on, or correlated 
with, the public school system of this country. This is one 
of the reasons why this vital problem should be solved in a 
careful, scientific way, with due regard to each person's apti- 
tudes, abilities, resources, and limitations, and at the same 
time taking into account the relation of these elements to 
the opportunities and conditions of success in the different 
fields of labor. Children should be employed in positions 
for which their health, capacity, and intellect best adapt 
them. If this is done, it means well-rounded and efficient 
manhood and womanhood. On the other hand, an occupa- 
tion out of harmony with a young person's aptitudes and 
capacities means inefficiency and a loss to both the employer 
and employee. A large number of adults who prove to be 
failures in life can trace the cause to the lack of proper guid- 
ance in both school and juvenile employment. 

The vocational direction or guidance department of a 
public school system should be a part of the organization of 
the continuation school, and should be in charge of a director 
called a "vocational counselor." This director should have 
full power over the granting of working certificates and pro- 
viding employment for young people who desire to go to 
work. 

A vocational counselor should be a person with a sympa- 
thetic interest in young people. In addition, he should have 
information in regard to the opportunities for work for 
young people. In order to obtain this information, the 
counselor should have an appropriate personality to ap- 
proach employers, and the ability to do research work and 
to organize this information in proper form for use. This 



68 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

may be carried out by dividing vocations into five large 
classes, the professional, the commercial, the agricultural, 
the industrial, and the household. Under each class we may 
have divisions and subdivisions of occupations. A record 
of qualifications and of the supply and demand of different 
positions should be on file. A chart may be made illustrat- 
ing the educational opportunities in the community. The 
survey will show the positions open to young people by using 
data given on page 62 in the form of a chart, which has 
been used successfully by the National Society for the 
Promotion of Industrial Education. 

In order that the vocational counselor may properly look 
after the welfare of the individual child, it is necessary to 
know definitely the time the child should begin work and 
the kind of work he is able to do. Physicians tell us that 
the mental and physical condition should not be overshad- 
owed by being brought into use before the development 
adapted to such use is established; and on the other hand, 
that functions, both mental and physical, are weakened by 
not being brought into use when they are ready to be used. 

The mental development of the child should be carefully 
determined to see whether the child should be allowed to 
work. Before this is done, it is necessary to know the nature 
of the work the boy or girl is to perform. After it is deter- 
mined by tests that he or she has the mental equipment and 
the degree of knowledge necessary to do a certain form of 
work, the next question to be solved is whether his physical 
condition is such that this particular kind of work will not 
harm him. Since labor differs in character, occupations 
should be classified, and the boy or girl should be allowed to 
perform only the character of work that is best adapted to 
his or her physical condition. 

Since the knowledge and training imparted to a child are 
to prepare him for life, the school should follow up the boys 



AN INDUSTRIAL SURVEY 69 

and girls who leave, and see how successfully these children 
have been prepared. The school is to judge by the success 
or failure of the children who are out in the school of life. 
A continuation school teacher should be assigned to look 
after a definite group in addition to the regular school work. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 

1. What are the objections usually raised in a community against an 
industrial survey? Are the objections well founded? 

2. Explain some of the reasons why "Protocols " are not more commonly 
used in industrial education. 

3. Are social workers alone competent to carry on an industrial school 
survey? 

4. Are so-called general educators alone competent to carry on an indus- 
trial school survey? 

5. What are the preliminary steps usually taken before an industrial 
school survey is made in a community? 

6. How was vocational guidance provided a generation or two ago? 

7. What objections are made to vocational guidance? 

8. Give some reasons why the public school system should support a 
well-organized vocational bureau. What are some of the objections 
usually made against such a bureau? 

9. Explain how the public school system may assist in solving the prob- 
lem of the unemployed. 

10. Outline the organization of a vocational bureau for an industrial city 
of 500,000 inhabitants. 

11. Give some of the reasons why every child should be under the guidance 
of the public school system until he or she reaches the age of eighteen. 
What are some of the objections to such a plan? 

LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING 

* Report of the Minneapolis Survey. National Society for the Promo- 
tion of Industrial Education. Bulletin no. 21. 

(A very comprehensive study of the industrial educational needs 
of Minneapolis. Forms and questionnaire are very valuable.) 
** Report of the Richmond Survey. National Society for the Promotion 
of Industrial Education. Bulletin no. 20. 

(A study of the different trades and industries of Richmond, 
Virginia, to determine educational needs.) 
** The Vocational Survey of Cincinnati. Chamber of Commerce, Cincin- 
nati, Ohio. 

(A chamber of commerce investigation of the educational needs.) 



70 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

"Vocational Information for Pupils in a Small City," M. A. Wheat- 
ley. School Review, March, 1915. 

(A study of vocational guidance in a small city.) 
* "Vocational Guidance in Boston." F. V. Thompson. School Review, 
February, 1915. 

(A description of the organization of the vocational guidance 
department of the school system of Boston.) 
** Readings in Vocational Guidance. Meyer Bloomfield. 

(A collection of the best articles on vocational guidance.) 
Vocational Guidance and the Public Schools. Associated Academic 
Principals and Councils of Elementary School Principals and Teachers. 
Proceedings, Syracuse, New York, 1913. 

(A splendid discussion on how the public school may assist voca- 
tional guidance.) 



CHAPTER VIII 

PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGY UNDERLYING LEARNING 

In order that one may have a clear understanding of the 
methods of teaching industrial education, it is necessary to 
have at least a working hypothesis of the action of the mind 
in acquiring knowledge and skill. The immediate organ 
of the mind is the nervous system which consists of the 
brain, spinal column, the cerebro-spinal nerves, and the 
sympathetic system of nerves which maintains the auto- 
matic action of the organs of respiration, circulation, and 
digestion. All of these parts form a complete system; the 
nerves and the spinal column are merely extensions of the 
brain tissue. The nerves, which extend to every part of the 
body, appear like white, silvery threads, branching and rami- 
fying from the roots which are sent from the spinal column 
through lateral holes in the spine, and to the brain from the 
organs of sense through the holes in the skull. Each nerve 
has two parts, the motor and sensory cords; these two cords 
run side by side, and form one thread bound by many 
twisted fibers that conduct the nervous energy and nutrition 
to and from the nerve centers. The two cords are distinct 
in each nerve, and serve a distinct purpose. The sensory 
cord carries sensations or sensory impressions that it re- 
ceives to the brain or spinal column, and the motor cord 
carries the reactions from the brain — that is, the intellect 
— to every part of the body. Each cord acts independently 
except as they meet in the brain. The brain is divided into 
two hemispheres or lobes, associated with each other by 
fibers which unite them. The center of the brain contains 
the section that regulates the activities of the special senses, 
smelly sight, hearing, tasting, and touch. 



72 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Organs of sense do not at once act in their full measure in 
the child. They do not possess at the birth of the child 
their full power or precision, as in the case of animals, such 
as the power of smell of a dog. The first applications of 
sense-perception need to be corrected by experience. Each 
sense assists the other, and gives approximate perfection to 
sense-perception. Knowledge is best obtained by the com- 
bined exercise of all the organs of sense. Exercise strength- 
ens the organs and makes them accurate. 

The eye, the organ of seeing, is one of the most important 
organs. It at first perceives only surface and color, but it is 
trained by experience with the aid of the other senses to per- 
ceive texture, figure, size, number, and distance. By train- 
ing the eyes, the dyer is able to detect differences in shades 
of color, and other skilled workmen (tradesmen) are able by 
inspection to detect imperfections and strong points in 
material. 

The ear reveals sound. It is aroused by vibratory move- 
ments through the air to the ear. The ear, which at first is 
quite inactive, and very gradually discriminates sound, may 
be trained to perceive shades of tone. Experienced mechan- 
ics are able to detect weaknesses in engines and machine 
parts by the sound produced from the blow of the hammer 
which the ordinary person would be unable to discover. 

The tongue reveals taste. The organ of taste is the sur- 
face of the tongue and palate on which are distributed 
nerves. In order to excite the sensation of taste, it is 
necessary to have the substance in a state of solution. 
Continuous stimulation rapidly deadens its sensibility. It 
is hard to arouse this sense. It may be cultivated to a great 
extent by practice. Merchants and others are able to make 
the selection of certain commodities and to detect impurities 
by the sense of taste. 

The sense of touch: the nerves of touch extend to every 



PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING LEARNING 73 

part of the body and receive impressions at their extremi- 
ties; in the fingers they terminate in a fold which is espe- 
cially sensitive to vibration. When we touch an object a 
flow of nerve energy or sensory impression is sent through 
the sensory fiber to the cerebrum forming a sense-perception. 

The nose reveals smell. The organ of smell is the mem- 
brane lining the inner surface of the nose. Odorous particles 
are emitted from the substance, pass over the membrane, 
and stimulate the nerve fibers. It resembles taste to a cer- 
tain degree, in that continuous action will render the organ 
useless. Certain tradesmen possess this sense to a marked 
degree. 

Of course we know that we can enlarge the scope of knowl- 
edge to be obtained by the eye and ear by artificial aids; the 
miscroscope and telescope assist the sight, and many other 
scientific inventions assist the hearing. We can improve 
and intensify the powers of sense by special practice; the 
surgeon trains the hearing, touch, and sight; the carpenter 
trains his eye and hand to work together in sawing wood. 
The expert finisher on cloth trains his touch so as to detect 
slight differences in the texture of fabrics that are not 
visible. 

The brain and nerves like all parts of the body develop 
very slowly. The child is born with certain tendencies that 
come by heredity. These tendencies are called " instincts/ ' 
The education of the child is a matter of inheritance and 
such habits and knowledge as are acquired by environment. 
The child's first education is received through the senses; 
that is, the child receives an impression first upon the organ 
of sense, which is transmitted by the sensory cord to the 
brain, where it makes an impression. As a result of a num- 
ber of these impressions called "sense-perception," the 
senses are exercised, and a certain movement of the mind 
takes place called a "reaction," which is transmitted from 



74 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

the brain to the body by the motor cord. Certain actions 
that are repeated many times create such an impression on 
the part of the brain, the spinal column, that it puts forth 
motor actions that become automatic; that is, carried on 
without connection with the brain itself. This power is 
called "habit," or the reflex action of the spinal column, and 
is shown in walking, etc., which at first requires intellectual 
direction, but through repetition is performed uncon- 
sciously, through habit. To illustrate: the first time a boy 
saws a board he is obliged to make special nervous effort to 
do the work, and finds great difficulty in sawing according 
to the pencil mark. There is a tendency for him to saw at 
a slight angle. The second time it may be somewhat easier. 
After a number of trials he is able to saw straight to the line. 
After a while he is able to saw with very little mental effort. 
This is due to the fact that he has acquired the habit or skill 
of sawing a board to the line. Each time he performed this 
operation it required a certain coordination of the eye and 
the hand, and finally the response became automatic in its 
action; a tract (mental) has been produced which can be 
aroused very easily. In the case of academic work, pupils 
must perform exercises and problems to a great extent in 
order to obtain the power or habit to remember how to solve 
future problems quickly and easily. An educational device 
called "drill" is used to produce this habit. 

Sometimes it is desirable to break off certain habits. In 
order to do this, it is absolutely necessary that the pupil 
should have a real desire to break off the old habits and 
enter into the drill or practice for the new habits with con- 
siderable initiative, and never allow an exception to occur 
until the new habits are securely formed. A teacher should 
secure the interest of the apprentice or students from the 
beginning to the end of the lesson or drill, so as to utilize the 
energy of the interest or previous habit to the best advan- 



PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING LEARNING 75 

tage. This requires close supervision in the early stages of 
the habit to form accuracy. Speed will be developed later. 

Every normal person is born with a healthy mind includ- 
ing the senses. In addition there are certain inherited ten- 
dencies or impulses called "instincts," like curiosity, emula- 
tion, love of outdoor sport, etc. Some of these instincts are 
born with us, others keep popping up from birth to adult 
life. A boy of fourteen years may be prompted by the in- 
stinct of curiosity to examine an electric bell, to see how it 
works. 

Instincts are very important in educating the child, for we 
build on the good and try to stifle the bad ones. It is of 
importance to consider the natural order and sequence of 
developing instincts, the normal age of the child for the first 
appearance of the different instincts, and the condition of 
their future growth. The development of many instincts 
is largely dependent upon that of others. Instincts may or 
may not appear at the same period in the abnormal child 
as in the natural child. 

Life may be divided into four parts; infancy, from birth 
to six years; childhood, from six to twelve years; adolescence, 
from twelve to manhood; and adult. The infancy period is 
the time of life of greatest activity, when the child appears 
to consist mostly of bundles of instincts, such as locomotion, 
curiosity, grasping, and imitation. It is through these in- 
stincts that the child is educated. At the age of five or six 
a child is able to walk with ease and grace, but his precision 
of movements of hands and fingers is about three fifths that 
of a boy of sixteen years of age. 

The second period, childhood, is marked by less violent or 
more directed self-activity. The greatest instinct is the 
play instinct. It is both expression and means of education. 
Education during this period may be assisted through play. 
It is during this period that memory, the mental power of 



76 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

retaining sense-perceptions, is developed. It is the devel- 
oping of this power that gives us knowledge, for we must 
retain knowledge in order to possess it. The growth dur- 
ing the period of life from ten to twelve is slow, and a sur- 
plus of energy is available. It is the time when the play 
instinct is strongest, and a period for the development of 
facility and skill, when drill exercises for the formation of 
habits may be given with least harm. 

Adolescence is the period of change. It is a time when a 
great many children put aside childish things and begin to 
think of the serious side of life, self-support. The period 
may be divided into three stages, embracing respectively 
the ages from twelve to sixteen, from sixteen to eighteen, and 
from eighteen to twenty-four. Some authorities have classi- 
fied these periods as the physical, emotional, and the intel- 
lectual stages. The first period, from twelve to sixteen, from 
an educational point of view, is the most critical and difficult 
to deal with on account of the secretiveness of the pupil. 
He does not care to express his feelings, and on the other 
hand, he is very sensitive. Habits are fairly well formed. 
It is true there is time to grow, but very little time for the 
formation of new habits. 

At the beginning of this period, pupils begin to work in 
groups, team-work. It is the time when boys like to form 
groups and organize clubs. This leads to considerable phys- 
ical exercise in the form of baseball, football, etc. From 
fourteen to sixteen is known as the "clumsy age," when 
the bones grow faster than the muscles. Some children 
during this period develop an awkwardness, periodic lazi- 
ness with a tendency to self-assertion and dreams of great- 
ness. Above sixteen years of age, the bones are formed to 
a considerable degree, and the student is able to handle 
tools on a commercial basis. 

After the age of twelve the play period ends, and the 



PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING LEARNING 77 

growing boy begins to live in an adult world. He is moved 
by motives similar to those of adults. It is during this 
period that the sense of achievement becomes very promi- 
nent in some boys' lives. From twelve to sixteen is a time 
of the most rapid body growth, a great increase in the devel- 
opment of the muscles of the hand and in the control of 
accessory muscles. The tendency to imitation is renewed, 
and a strong desire to follow adult ideals and examples is 
formed. It is a period among many boys of greatest incor- 
rigibility, misdemeanor, and crime, and of sensitiveness to 
ridicule. There is a keen sense of humor and a tendency 
to freakishness and pranks. 

Children at about the age of twelve begin to differ more 
or less in strength, health, intellectual ability, capacity for 
motor-development, and other mental and physical quali- 
ties, to such a degree that any wholesale classification is 
out of the question. Nevertheless, we can divide children, 
roughly speaking, at about twelve years of age — any earlier 
period would be unreliable — into two groups based upon 
the progress in the traditional school system. Since the 
work at school is largely memory work, committing informa- 
tion received from books to memory, and the promotion test 
is based on this, most pupils who fail to pass this memory 
test lack the interest and power to commit to memory ab- 
stract information from books. All pupils who have at- 
tended school regularly, and who can measure up to the 
promotion test, may be considered, for want of a better 
name, book-minded or abstract-minded. Those who fail are 
called retarded pupils. A great many of these are of a slug- 
gish mentality, strong physically, possessing the power of 
imitation and a mechanical ability, to a greater or less de- 
gree, and may be considered motor- or hand-minded. While 
this classification may be only approximate from a psycho- 
logical point of view, nevertheless every grade teacher rec- 



78 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

ognizes these two distinct groups — the abstract- and motor- 
minded. The interests of the hand-minded pupil are more 
motor than mental in character. It is from this class that 
industrial workers as a rule are recruited. 

Adults and children show a greater difference in the 
control of firm and precise movements of the fingers than 
in the movements of the limbs. It is in this respect that 
the feeble-minded differ from the normal, the efficiency 
of the finer movements corresponding to a higher degree of 
intelligence. 

All impressions received by the mind are recorded: we 
cannot always revive them. The easiest way to recall them 
is to arrange the knowledge in such a way as to be able to do 
this. Every exercise of the mind is dependent on attention, 
which is the concentration of nervous energy upon one group 
of brain cells. Upon the completeness of this concen- 
tration depends whether the mental exercise is more or 
less productive of knowledge and mental growth. Atten- 
tion to its fullest degree requires the following conditions: 
calmness of mind, healthy organs of sense and thought, 
nervous vigor, and a healthy body. There is a great differ- 
ence in the individual capacity for attention. Memory may 
be strengthened and trained by arranging ideas in such order 
as for one to excite the other, which means arranging accord- 
ing to one of the following: 

Known to unknown. 
Concrete to the abstract. 
Cause and effect. 
Means and ends. 
Part and whole. 
Like and unlike. 
Object and subject. 
Symbol and reality. 
Dependent ideas. 
Contiguous ideas. 



PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING LEARNING 79 

Ideas in the mind are arranged in series; that is, one idea 
recalls another, etc. This arrangement is called the "asso- 
ciation of ideas." In order to add another idea to human 
knowledge, it is better to attach it to some idea already in 
the mind than to present it as an isolated form of knowledge. 
The human mind is constantly arranging and rearranging 
the ideas, and this mental process is called reflection or 
"thinking." In order to get knowledge we must be able to 
retain it. Memory is the power of retaining knowledge. 
We have the power of mental acquisition and the power of 
mental conservation, which together give us knowledge. 

Since all impressions leave a tract in the mind, they are 
indelible and can be recollected. Memory may be strength- 
ened and trained by habits of concentrated attention and of 
association of ideas. The power for memory and recollec- 
tion varies greatly in degrees, in different individuals, and 
at periods of life. Some men can easily commit facts to 
memory, but are able to retain them only for a short period, 
while others require more repetition and effort in retaining, 
but can more easily and for a longer period preserve the 
knowledge. Some minds have a stronger hold on facts, 
others upon thoughts and feelings; some have great difficulty 
in recalling names and dates and ease in recalling analogies. 
In early life the memory is very impressionable, but the im- 
pressions are easily effaced. Children seem very soon to 
forget knowledge obtained before the age of seven. 

Therefore, in developing the power of memory train the 
mind to a vivid and complete recognition of all associated 
ideas. 

Whatever a child does in school or elsewhere is actuated 
by a motive; that is, he does it for a purpose. The impulse 
— may be instinct or habit — pushes him forward. Any 
study that arouses the mind of the student so as to make 
him inquire about it, is said to be interesting to him. This 



80 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

interest may be aroused by the teacher and is said to be ac- 
quired. When the interest has not been aroused by the 
teacher, it is said to be natural. It is safe to say that no 
child can acquire knowledge who has no interest in it. A 
teacher can no more give a child an interest that he does not 
have than he can add to his own height. Interest may be 
aroused and the teacher should take advantage of the suc- 
cessive waves of natural interest which underlie instincts. 
One of the foundation stones of industrial teaching is to 
arouse interest which gives the motive for the acquisition 
of knowledge. Of course, it should be understood that no 
teacher should allow an undesirable interest or tendency to 
develop. 

Every exercise of the mind is dependent on attention, 
which is simply a concentration of nervous energy upon one 
group of brain cells. Interests assist mental concentration. 
It is necessary in teaching a child to keep a sympathetic 
touch on his interests and previous experiences. 

There is a great difference in individual capacity for at- 
tention. The best minds have not only a great grasp of 
attention, but a great facility for transition from one subject 
to another. In minds of universal power the readiness of 
transition is so perfect as to enable them to attend to several 
subjects at once, keeping different groups of brain cells at 
work and accomplishing various kinds of mental operations 
simultaneously. 

If we examine our minds we shall see that the processes of 
accumulating knowledge consist in obtaining sense-percep- 
tions, retaining them (memory) and comparing them, and 
forming a conclusion called "judgment." You might say 
that every sense-perception has a judgment. 

To illustrate: a person interested in examining different 
metals, such as pieces of iron, brass, and lead, observes the 
qualities of each and naturally compares them. He classi- 



PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING LEARNING 81 

fies the metals either consciously or unconsciously into 
groups according to their common properties, such as color, 
weight, etc. He will say lead is heavier than iron, brass is 
different in color, etc. This act of classification rests on 
sense-perception and memory, but includes the power of 
holding a property or quality — that is, an abstract idea — 
before the mind for analysis or comparison. This power is 
called "abstraction," or the power of mental conception. 
In complex operations there is a series of judgments founded 
on a comparison of qualities and following a natural se- 
quence of cause and effect, or evidence and conclusion. 

Judgment becomes more and more complicated as the in- 
tellect advances in development. As we grow in experience 
and education, facts accumulate in the mind and knowledge 
increases, so that the field for comparison becomes larger. 
A greater number of relations and associations enter into our 
act of judgment. Definite judgments accumulate and form 
a fund of experience that can be relied upon as decision for 
further judgments, and may also become unconscious judg- 
ments that are often called "intuition." Of course we must 
bear in mind that in all complex mental operations there are 
series of judgments or decisions following a natural sequence 
of cause and effect. A series of judgments constitutes 
reasoning. 

All who take part in every-day fife are expected to have a 
minimum amount of good judgment that we often call "com- 
mon sense." It is the result of common experiences which 
give intuitive judgment. Therefore, every one, particu- 
larly in this country, should have sufficient general educa- 
tion to have general intelligence and common sense. Life 
consists of a series of adjustments to new conditions. The 
power which enables one to make these new adjustments is 
called by the psychologist "apperception," and "gumption" 
by the experienced mechanic. One adjusts himself in terms 



82 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

of his previous experiences; that is, he apperceives new 
things in terms of his previous experience. 

There are two methods of reasoning, inductive and deduc- 
tive. The inductive is the natural method of reasoning. It 
reasons by examining a number of individual cases to dis- 
cover a general resemblance or ground of classification and 
thus to reach the law or principle. The deductive reasoning 
begins with the rule or principle and draws conclusions re- 
specting the individual case. The process by which we ob- 
tain knowledge, by committing general abstract rules or 
laws to memory and then applying them to special cases, is 
called "deduction." It is the method used by experienced 
students and teachers who claim that it saves time and can 
be easily learned. The inductive reasoning begins with facts 
and deduces the theory, and the deductive reasoning begins 
with theory and deduces the facts. Modern industrial edu- 
cation should proceed in the beginning as far as possible by 
the methods of inductive reasoning. While the operations 
of simple judgment, or one- or two-step reasoning, are com- 
mon to all, the power of generalization is distributed in a 
larger degree over the abstract- rather than the motor- 
minded person. 

There are two theories with regard to the training of the 
mind: formal training and specific training. Formal train- 
ing theory, often called formal discipline or mental disci- 
pline, states that there are certain subjects, like mathemat- 
ics and foreign languages, that give a general mental training 
such as logical reasoning power. The specific training 
theory claims that general mental discipline does not exist: 
that each subject has a mental disciplinary value that ap- 
plies to that subject only, or one of similar content. Mathe- 
matics trains the mind for mathematical reasoning only. 
There is no question but that the theory of formal discipline 
is not true. On the other hand, there are some prominent 



PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING LEARNING 83 

educators who claim that the problem of training the mind 
is a complex one, and that the doctrine of specific training 
is only approximately true. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 

1. Why is a mechanic usually stronger physically than a professional 
man? 

2. Name the special senses utilized by the following mechanics: (a) cabi- 
net-maker; (6) steam engineer; (c) electrician; (d) worsted weaver; 
(e) jeweler; (/) structural-steel worker. Name some special devices 
used by the above mechanics to increase sense-perception. 

3. What is the difference between an instinct and a habit? 

4. What is the skill of a mechanic in terms of psychology? 

5. Why is it more harmful to have acquired wrong manipulative skill 
than not to have acquired any? 

6. What are the objections to allowing a child to receive industrial train- 
ing under fourteen years of age? 

7. What are the psychological effects of highly specialized occupations? 

8. What are the moral and physical effects of extremely specialized 
occupations? 

9. Does personal growth in character, physical power, and mental ca- 
pacity depend upon the occupations followed? 

10. Will early specialization on one who has not reached his growth have 
the same effect as specialization on one who has attained his growth 
later in life. 

LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING 

* Educational Psychology. E. L. Thorndike. 

(A very reliable book on psychology.) 
** Vocational Psychology. H. L. Hollings worth. 

(A very thorough and complete book on the application of prin- 
ciples of psychology to all vocational activities.) 

* " Abstract-Minded and Motor-Minded." W. H. Dooley. In The Edu- 

cation of the N e'er-Do-Well. 

(A distinction made between the normal boy and delinquent 
based upon ability to grasp academic subjects.) 

* Genetic Psychology. E. A. Kirkpatrick. 

(A study of the psychology of different periods of growth.) 



CHAPTER IX 

GENERAL METHODS OF TEACHING 

The previous chapter shows us that the human mind ac- 
quires knowledge according to certain principles, the most 
important of which are interest and progression. Interest 
varies with the different types of persons and at different 
periods of life. Progression means that the subject-matter 
we expect to impart must be carefully analyzed and sepa- 
rated into ideas, each one of which must be presented in the 
form of a lesson. Each idea must be the outgrowth of the 
preceding one. 

Experience shows that there are two methods of analyzing 
the subject-matter: first, presenting the subject in complete 
units, and secondly, by considering parts of each unit sepa- 
rately. To illustrate: in teaching arithmetic the traditional 
arrangement was to present each unit completely, such as 
addition, before beginning the next unit, subtraction. The 
second was to present the addition of small numbers, then 
the subtraction, followed by the multiplication and division 
of small numbers. Then to return and consider the addi- 
tion, subtraction, multiplication, and division of more diffi- 
cult numbers. The first method is called the "unit" 
method and the second the "spiral" method. The unit 
method is part of the logical method of teaching, while the 
spiral method is based on the psychological method, that a 
learner can grasp the simple parts of a number of units of a 
subject more easily than the more difficult parts of any 
particular unit. 

In teaching we should select the most economical and 
effective methods of conveying the information and skill or 



GENERAL METHODS OF TEACHING 85 

in presenting a subject. There are general methods and 
special methods of teaching. Experienced teachers usually 
divide the general method of teaching into five distinct steps : 
Preparation, Presentation, Application, Generalization, and 
Recitation or Inspection. 

Preparation is the skillful manner in which a teacher finds 
out from the pupils what they already know on the subject. 
This is usually done by asking questions and recalling to the 
minds of pupils past experiences on this subject. Then 
show the value of more information and ideas on the subject 
by offering incentives. The mind is then eager for the new 
ideas that are to be grafted on the old ones. Present the 
additional information in an interesting manner. This step 
is called "presentation." The pupils should then be obliged 
to apply the new ideas in the class so that the teacher may 
see that they understand each step, "application." This 
work includes constant repetition called "drill." "Gener- 
alization" is the next step and includes the assimilation of 
the new and the old ideas so that deductions may be made. 
After the pupil has been taught and drilled, it is the aim of 
the next step, "recitation" or "inspection," to see that the 
pupil really understands the new ideas. This is done by 
written or oral examination or test, or by examination of 
the finished product in the shop. 

The extent to which transfer of training or knowledge of 
one subject to another depends upon the organization of the 
course of study or the subject and upon the method of pre- 
senting the subject. A subject may be presented in such a 
way as to become an isolated group of principles, and arouse 
only a minimum of ideas in the pupil's mind. On the other 
hand, the same subject may be presented by other methods 
so as to arouse a great many ideas in the student's mind, and 
become part of his whole thinking. We may say then that 
the extent to which a pupil generalizes his training in a sub- 



86 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

ject is a measure of the degree to which he has secured from 
the subject the highest form of training. 

Instructors in teaching use different means of impart- 
ing information, such as lectures and demonstrations, use 
of textbooks, oral teaching, the laboratory, and objective 
methods. The lecture and demonstration method acts on 
the principle that the teacher should tell the pupil every- 
thing, and that he should not find out anything for himself. 
The disadvantages of this method are that the student may 
hear or see, but not understand; he does not learn how to 
think, discover, or develop the means of attacking a prob- 
lem, to know how to get facts and other facts out of them. 
Despite the many disadvantages of the lecture and demon- 
stration method, which applies mostly to technical subjects, 
a great deal of information, particularly of general educa- 
tion, may be and is imparted effectively through this 
method. 

Most of the teaching carried on in school is through the 
assistance of specially prepared books for pupils, called 
" textbooks." This method of teaching was first introduced 
to secure uniform methods of teaching and to assist poorly 
equipped instructors. Instruction through books has the 
advantage that each pupil can think at his own rate, get the 
facts over and over again as he needs, and then test himself 
point by point and make note of his difficulties, which are to 
be explained by the teacher. Book teaching is very valuable 
to students who have the ability to get ideas from print. 
Some pupils who have the mental equipment, particularly 
the abstract-minded or scholastic type, prefer to read rather 
than listen to a story or a lecture. The motor-minded or 
practical-minded pupil prefers to hear the description from 
the teacher. Textbooks are valuable as a means of econ- 
omy of time in teaching, as facts, principles, and applica- 
tions may be given by means of a book in one month of the 



GENERAL METHODS OF TEACHING 87 

term of a course, and the rest of the term should be spent in 
study, experimenting, and problem-solving. 

Personal teaching is largely oral. The value of oral teach- 
ing lies in the added interest due to the intonation, facial 
expressions, gestures, and illustrations used by the teacher. 
Oral teaching requires less effort on the part of the pupil than 
reading. It is very necessary to a certain age, particularly 
to the younger children. Oral teaching is very important 
in general teaching, in the art of questioning to determine 
quickly whether a student does or does not know, and also 
assists the teacher to verify the results of previous teaching. 
Dictation of a lesson requires greater effort on the part of 
the pupil than listening, because the process of writing is 
artificial and the characters are abstract and remote from 
the experience of the pupil. 

There are certain elements of knowledge, particularly 
technical knowledge, that can be obtained only by direct 
experience of real things, qualities, events, and relations. 
The method of teaching through real things is called "ob- 
jective" teaching, and may be given in different degrees; the 
actual object or thing, a model of it, a photograph of it, or a 
rough sketch of it. The laboratory method of teaching is a 
combination of the objective teaching with the observation 
and verification of principles involved by the pupil's own 
experimentation. 

Efficiency in any subject or trade is only obtained by a 
continuous repetition called " drill. " There are two meth- 
ods of securing drill in school work: the logical order and the 
psychological order. The logical order consists of presenting 
first a series of exercises consisting of definitions and uses, 
composed of the elements of the subject formed by the anal- 
ysis of the complete subject. The elements are combined 
and arranged in a series according to a preconceived princi- 
ple of a teacher or an educator who has mastered the subject. 



88 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

The advocates of the logical order believe that drills should 
be frequent and thorough, and should be continued until the 
pupil has acquired the habit. Without these frequent drills 
in the beginning, pupils may fall into bad habits and become 
discouraged. 

The psychological order consists of presenting concrete 
facts of the subject to the student when he is actually curious 
about the facts or has been made curious by the teacher, 
who has aroused his interest by presenting incentives for the 
study of the subject. The student makes his own analysis 
as far as possible. Skill is not aroused by this method of 
exercises so well as by the construction of some useful or 
beautiful object that the pupil desires to make. "When he 
finds that his skill is not adequate for this purpose, he may 
analyze the work and then strengthen by special exercises 
the weak elements, and finally apply himself again to the 
task. 

The logical method is based on a theory that learning 
naturally starts with the elements into which a subject may 
be divided or analyzed, and that these elements may be built 
up by the mind into a so-called "logical" arrangement. 
While this is the method of rearranging knowledge in a 
scholar's mind after he has mastered the subject, it is cer- 
tainly not the method by which a beginner or a learner 
arranges knowledge. 

A great many people, particularly some prominent educa- 
tors, object to the haphazard method of obtaining knowledge 
as practiced under the apprenticeship system and the home 
of old. The educator may say that it is not the economical 
method of learning. He fails to see that this natural method 
is not haphazard at all, but follows the mental growth of the 
pupil. Effort is obtained from the student as in the logical 
method, but it is obtained through a motive which a child 
must see in order to be interested. The experience of sue- 



GENERAL METHODS OF TEACHING 89 

cessful men who have been trained by the old apprenticeship 
system shows that this method gives a discipline that is 
deeper and more permanent than that obtained by other 
methods which have no relation to the person's self-devel- 
opment. 

The attention paid to a subject — that is, the amount of 
mental activity involved — varies with the interest taken in 
a subject. The extent to which a person can be influenced 
by deferred or remote motives depends upon the period of 
growth of an individual and the type of the person. Motor- 
minded individuals are inclined to demand immediate re- 
turns : therefore, it is very important that this type of person 
should not be given considerable educational work (drills) of 
a drudgery nature in the beginning. Drill work should be 
provided just before it is necessary to have it. The interest 
or motivation of the present work is sufficient to carry the 
pupil over the preliminary drill. 

Every instructor should carefully determine by experi- 
ment the amount of drill necessary for the proper acquisi- 
tion of a habit. This amount is often called the "optimum " 
to distinguish from the least (minimum), or the greatest 
amount (maximum). Less than the optimum leaves the 
habit insecure and of little use. Greater than the optimum 
is a waste of time and effort. To illustrate: if you desire to 
teach a boy to make a wood joint, he should be drilled in 
making projects involving joints until he makes a satisfac- 
tory one to meet commercial conditions. After he has 
reached this stage it takes many hours of practice to add a 
very small degree of improvement. 

The traditional public school system may be compared to 
a ladder reaching from the primary school to the college. It 
has one direction, preparation for college. It is divided into 
sections called "grades" based upon the chronological age 
of the individual. Pupils are graded in schools in order, as 



90 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

far as possible, to keep the mental and physical development 
in equilibrium. A great many children of the same chrono- 
logic age may safely be placed in the same grade in the 
school, up to the sixth grade, about the age of twelve. 
About this period individual children differ from each other 
in mental and physical development to a marked degree and 
a wholesale classification has proved to be inadequate. Any 
attempt to force the same course of study on all children 
above twelve years has caused a large percentage of retarda- 
tion. 

In the past, and in some cases to-day, the educational 
system has neglected the training of the motor-minded child 
who has certain mental and physical qualities that are re- 
quired in industry. The course of study was laid out to 
favor those of a scholastic turn of mind who would eventu- 
ally go to college. The test for promotion was a literary one 
and the intellectual type, with his quick memory, had no 
difficulty in passing the promotion tests, while the motor- 
minded child, without quick memory, fails of promotion and 
becomes what the teacher calls a "retarded pupil." He is 
asked to repeat the grade and he soon loses interest in 
school and feels as if he is a social outcast among the pupils. 

An earnest effort is being made to-day to make the ele- 
mentary- and the high-school curriculum broad enough to 
include every fundamental mode of utilizing mind which 
society employs in the conduct of its affairs; that is, at the 
completion of the sixth grade (about the age of twelve) a 
variety of courses, such as prevocational, commercial, and 
the regular school courses, should be offered to pupils. This 
will give to every variety of mind that interest and growth 
which are necessary to power and self-confidence in doing 
the day's work. 

The teaching in our schools must also be modified radi- 
cally in order to arouse the type of mind that will enter in- 



GENERAL METHODS OF TEACHING 91 

dustry as a worker. In order to interest the student, prob- 
lems to be studied must be made to arise in vital and natural 
ways, so that the child may recognize the need for all the 
school work which the teacher requires. 

Schools should be so organized that ample opportunity 
may be given for studying and distributing the boys and 
girls into the particular courses of training and lines of 
occupation where each may do his best work. This has 
been desirable under vocational guidance. Opportunities 
should be provided for children who go to work to continue 
their education. Under a system of part-time schooling, 
as described on page 35, children will see the need of edu- 
cation of which they were previously unaware. Responsi- 
bility provokes thought and the need for more information 
and skill. 

A course of study in the elementary schools should be 
sufficiently liberal to give the teacher opportunities for ac- 
curate inferences as to the industrial activity of the pupil. 

There are five possible means of discovering the physical 
and mental qualities of a person for a suitable work: 

1. General observation and recommendations. 

2. Written examinations. 

3. Trying-out process. 

4. Controlled psychological tests. 

5. Inference from school work. 

Most applicants are engaged for positions in the trades 
and business, often on interviews supplemented by letters 
of recommendation. A number of employers look for a 
letter from the teacher or principal of the last school at- 
tended. The teacher, without any knowledge of the re- 
quirements for the occupation, is liable to place the aca- 
demics above that of his mechanical ability, and recommend 
the type least suited for the work. This shows how impor- 
tant it is for the public school to know how to measure the 



92 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

ability of a pupil. To recommend a pupil for a position, we 
must know the pupil and the requirements of the position. 

When a young man leaves school to-day, he looks for a 
position and is usually governed by the following conditions 
in selecting his occupation; initial high wage, his father's 
occupation, easy working conditions, and the nearness of 
the place of business to his home. He desires immediate 
rather than deferred returns. His parents fail to call to his 
attention the fact that positions that provide steady work, 
with a gradual increase of salary, seldom give a high initial 
wage. 

The examination method is a tedious process and fails 
to give a true test of the person's ability. 

The trying-out process of testing the ability of a pupil is 
an expensive method both to the pupil and to the manu- 
facturer. 

The psychological tests are in the experimental stage and 
have not reached the point where the average employer can 
perform the tests. It usually requires the experience of an 
expert. 

The records of each pupil in school should give an index 
of the kind of work he is best adapted to pursue. To illus- 
trate : Pupils with some artistic ability will display this talent 
in the fine art work that is carried on in the industrial arts, 
hand-work and drawing. There are very few pupils gifted 
with this talent, and it is very necessary that pupils should 
know before they leave school whether they possess this 
talent or not, the occupations that require it, and the oppor- 
tunities provided for the development of the same. There 
are certain positions in the designing department of jewelery 
manufacturers, furniture manufacturers, cloth manufactur- 
ers, etc., that require this talent. Pupils may enter these 
trades and industries and work up to hold responsible 
positions. 



GENERAL METHODS OF TEACHING 93 

There are certain characteristics that are necessary in 
every-day living for every mechanical occupation, and these 
are health, strength, and character. Boys of this type are 
usually found among the children of the families of the 
mechanical class. Boys of slight build should not be en- 
couraged to go into manual occupations. 

The craftsmen and skilled workmen should be recruited 
from the strong, healthy boys who show considerable ability 
in doing accurate work with the fingers and hands. This 
ability comes only after long experience and constant prac- 
tice. 

Vocational guidance may be imparted by the following 
means : 

Selected readings showing: 

Economic activities. 

Qualities demanded in various occupations. 
Systematic reading and study of prepared pamphlets. 
Individual or group conferences of pupils and teachers. 
Systematic study of young people: 

Physical make-up. 

Intellectual make-up. 
Prevocational training. 

Systematic study of various economic lines of employment. 

Maintenance of employment agencies. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 

1. What effect has industrial education on general methods of instruc- 
tion? 

2. Is the spiral system of presenting a subject used in high schools and 
colleges? 

3. Some pupils would like to have the teacher do all the talking in class. 
Why? 

4. How would you present the subject of decimals? 

5. Give the outlines of a lesson plan on elementary science, properties 
of matter. 

6. Has the lecture method of presenting a subject a place in the ele- 
mentary school? 

7. A large corporation provides lectures on popular subjects for working 



94 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

people. Is this education? If so under which class would you clas- 
sify this education? Why? 

8. A college grade industrial school offers a course in English Literature 
for mechanical engineers. What type of education does this subject 
represent? 

9. Children in the primary schools are taught hand-weaving. What 
type of education would you consider this subject under? 

10. A boy of twelve (in a mill town) carries his father's dinner every day. 
While waiting for his father he sees the weavers at work and acquires 
a knowledge of weaving. Is this formal or informal education? Why? 

1 1 . Learning to read a newspaper is what kind of education? 

12. What are the two great principles of teaching that underlie industrial 
work? 

13. Interest depends upon what factors? 

14. Do the so-called "general studies" in liberal education constitute 
a training in mental development of sufficient importance to be given 
in an industrial school? 

15. Does the close application to practice and theory required in the 
training of a general electrician develop general intellectual powers, 
as attention, concentration, order, etc.? 

16. Are there any strong interests that may be aroused by industrial 
studies which are frequently left inactive in general education? 

17. Explain why boys are not wanted in the highly skilled trades until 
they are at least sixteen years of age. 

18. Is it more difficult to handle boys in the seventh and eighth grades 
than in the fifth and sixth grades? Why? 

19. Which is more important, progression or interest? 

20. Which is more efficient, individual or classroom instruction? Why? 

21. Is it effective teaching to place a few illiterate non-English-speaking 
pupils of twelve years of age with the first and second grade pupils? 
Why? 

22. Children in the lower grades are taught by objective teaching more 
than those in the middle and upper grades. Why? 

23. Illustrate the difference between the spiral and unit method in teach- 
ing fractions. 

LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING 

* The Learning Process. S. S. Colvin. 

(The psychological steps in acquiring knowledge.) 

* How to Think. J. Dewey. 

(The possibilities of developing scientific habits of thinking in 
children and adults.) 
** Principles of Education. E. N. Henderson. 

(A very complete book on the principles underlying modern 
education.) 



GENERAL METHODS OF TEACHING 95 

** How to Study. F. M. McMurry. 

(A discussion of the best methods of getting the child to study 
effectively.) 
* The Elements of General Method. C. A. McMurry. 

(A splendid book on general methods of teaching.) 
** The Primer of Psychology. E. B. Tichever. 

(A very elementary discussion of psychology.) 



CHAPTER X 

GENERAL METHODS FOR TEACHING IN INDUSTRIAL 
EDUCATION 

If we examine the successful engineer, mechanic, etc., we 
shall find that his knowledge consists roughly of three parts : 
the skill or manipulative phase, the related technical infor- 
mation that goes with the manipulative work, and a knowl- 
edge that promotes industrial ideals and general intelligence. 
To illustrate : the successful mechanical engineer has skill in 
running or operating mechanical plants and machines, a 
knowledge of parts of mathematics, physics, chemistry, and 
drawing which are the foundation stones of the practice, in 
addition to good intelligence and high ideals of his profes- 
sion. The same may be applied to a house carpenter who 
has a large amount of skill in house construction and repair- 
ing; sufficient practical knowledge of such parts of mathe- 
matics, drawing, and science as to do his work intelligently. 

A course of study or training in industrial education may 
be divided for purposes of instruction into three parts, the 
skill or manipulative phase, the related technical or theo- 
retical information that goes with manipulative work, and 
the group of studies that are designed to promote industrial 
ideals and general intelligence. To illustrate: to teach a 
student to be a house carpenter means that he will receive a 
large amount of practice in house construction and repairing, 
also a study of such parts of mathematics, drawing, and 
science as a well-trained carpenter should know. In addi- 
tion the student should be taught the history of the wood- 
working trades, distribution of occupations in this trade, 
and the special hygiene for wood-workers. A program for 



TEACHING IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 97 

general intelligence in English, history, and civics should be 
provided. The amount of time devoted to the group of 
studies for general education should not be over twenty per 
cent of the total time allotment. 

The manipulative skill in an industrial school must include 
training in the practical operations of that trade as carried 
on in a commercial shop. This may include, in the case of 
the general carpenter, manufacture of salable products, 
manufacture of school equipment and repairs on the build- 
ing, etc., called "productive" work. As far as possible the 
school should manufacture articles that can be sold or used 
— commercial value. In this way it is possible, in addition 
to the profit from the sales, for a pupil to get the habit of 
making a commercial product that can be compared in both 
quality and quantity to the regular commercial product, 
and thus to arouse an additional interest on the part of the 
pupil. Non-productive practical work includes all work 
that cannot be put to practical use. 

Every subject has two educational values, the practical 
and the theoretical. The practical value of a subject is ac- 
quired for a definite purpose. The ideal of the practical is 
personal efficiency, and the ideal of the theoretical is per- 
sonal accomplishment or culture. The learning of mathe- 
matics, science, and drawing, as separate theoretical or ab- 
stract subjects, does not contribute to industrial education. 
It is the practical side of these subjects — that is, the 
correlation with practical work — that gives industrial effi- 
ciency. On the other hand, industrial education contrib- 
utes some general education as a by-product. To illus- 
trate: industrial training for a machinist includes a knowl- 
edge of metals, which involves some principles of chemistry, 
and shop practice, such as lubrication, speeds, etc., which 
involves principles of physics. In this way an industrial 
course for machinists gives an insight into the applications 



08 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

of principles of science. In addition, industrial education 
contributes to mental learning, on account of the close appli- 
cation to practice and theory, which tends to develop such 
intellectual powers as attention, concentration, order, etc. 

The college grade school originally taught by means of 
lectures, textbooks, and demonstrations. As time went on, 
it was found that it was difficult for students to grasp tech- 
nical knowledge from lectures and the printed page. De- 
spite the fact that the student was interested in technical 
subjects and saw the importance of them, it was impossible 
to grasp the principles clearly. The laboratory method was 
then introduced. 

The type of boy that is going to do the best work in a col- 
lege grade school of technology is one that has the power to 
deal with applied science, mathematics, mechanism in the 
abstract. Some boys must have experience in order to un- 
derstand the things, and cannot deal with the abstract 
problems in mathematics, science, etc., as easily as the 
purely abstract-minded boy. This type of boy is handi- 
capped and therefore is at a disadvantage in pursuing this 
theoretical course. The schools of technology desire prac- 
tically the same type of mind as the colleges, and the newer 
schools of technology follow the courses of study of the older 
institutions, with the approval of the alumni. 

The two Russian schools of technology, one at Mos- 
cow, the Imperial Technical School, and the Institute at 
Petrograd, made valuable contributions to methods of 
teaching. They combined textbooks, lectures, and labora- 
tory and shop practice. The work in laboratory and shop 
consisted of exercises in order to familiarize pupils with con- 
struction, use and nature of materials. Continental Euro- 
pean schools have hesitated about adopting the Russian 
plan, but the United States and England have adopted it 
with much success in the schools of technology. The Con- 



TEACHING IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 99 

tinental European engineer is a technically trained scientist, 
and finds positions as designer, draftsman, and computer; 
therefore the school provides theoretical instruction for five 
or six years before going out into practical work; although 
at present a certain amount of shop practice is required 
before graduation. 

While the instruction in the college and secondary evening 
technical schools follows somewhat the methods and con- 
tent of the day courses, this does not apply to the elementary 
evening industrial courses. The type of pupil that attends 
the higher grades of evening technical classes is of a highly 
selected group, and has the interest and mental equipment 
to study a subject systematically and continuously for three, 
four, or five years. This is not true of the ordinary worker, 
as for example one who attends an evening trade school, with 
a poor general education and an intensely practical aim. 
They are unwilling to study systematically an entire subject, 
such as might be expected from children in a day school. 

Both the inductive and deductive methods are used exten- 
sively in industrial schools. In the college grade or techni- 
cal high school the general method of teaching shop practice 
is the deductive method; that is, from general principle to 
definite practice, or, as it is sometimes expressed, from the 
"how" to "why." To illustrate: a student in electrical 
engineering in a school of technology would begin his train- 
ing by a theoretical discussion of the principles in science, 
mathematics, and drawing underlying the machine or job. 
Later in the course he would receive shop practice which 
would involve the principles he has studied in the abstract. 

While there may be some justification for the so-called 
"abstract" and "logical" methods, supplemented by ob- 
jective teaching, in higher technical schools, where the 
students are matured and possess considerable power of 
abstraction and linguistic ability, experience has shown that 



100 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

it is a very inefficient method for the motor-minded pupils 
from whom tradesmen and industrial workers are recruited. 

The characteristics of the motor-minded boy are quite 
different from those of the abstract-minded boy who has 
profited to a large degree by general education. Motor- 
minded children usually have considerable physical activity, 
which shows itself in both " constructiveness " and "destruc- 
tiveness," real desire to build things and to pull objects 
apart, to see how they work. They cannot sit still, and 
desire to move and handle the objects for the love of action. 

The general mental activity of this type of boy leads him 
to "imitate"; the desire to do what older and experienced 
men do. Another instinct that is well developed is curiosity. 
The feeling to know what is "being done" and "how it is 
done" and "how it works" are valuable as a means of pro- 
ducing interest. While the interest may not always be 
sustained, it is of sufficient temporary character to be of 
value. It is surprising the amount of unorganized knowl- 
edge accumulated in every-day industrial life through 
curiosity. 

I The motor-minded boy is very easily discouraged if given 
a too difficult task. He immediately loses interest. Since 
confidence in one's ability to do a job is a very important 
factor in developing interest, it is very necessary to grade 
all work given to him in a progressive form of simple steps, 
so that one step is apperceived out of the preceding one, 
and that no step is too difficult. Then each success means 
greater confidence. 

In addition he has an intensely practical, selfish mind. 
He is not able to think in deferred values; he desires knowl- 
edge and information that has immediate value to himself 
alone, and is not willing to study a subject systematically 
in the hope that it may be of value at some future date. 

Therefore, in instructing this type of boy in industrial 



TEACHING IN INDUSTRIAL" EDUCATION 101 

subjects, it is absolutely necessary that the instruction be 
adapted to his needs. All instruction must center around 
his selfish aim. In order to secure his interest it is necessary 
to arouse a feeling on the part of the pupil that the subject 
he is about to study will assist him in some way in something 
he wishes to do. No task must be beyond the ability of 
the pupil, so as to develop his self-confidence. After the 
task has been completed, some means of praise should be 
provided. This may be done by word of praise from a 
superior officer, by mark, or a roll of honor, or a prize. 

Since the power of abstraction is not very great, it is im- 
portant that all instruction should be concrete and objective. 
Concrete teaching usually gives immediate and not deferred 
value. Another value of concrete instruction over abstract 
or book instruction is that the former may be made into 
units, as simple as desired. This is not true in the case of 
book knowledge. Concrete instruction leads to self-confi- 
dence. The inductive method is one of the most effective 
means of teaching the average mechanic apprentice. The 
apprentice has considerable shop practice and wonders why 
he performs certain work, and the next time he attends class 
he usually asks the shop instructor the reason. 

The average apprentice or pupil in an industrial school 
represents the same degree of intelligence as that of the mass 
of the population. A study of his characteristics will show 
that he is intensely selfish. You must study him in order to 
secure the best methods of teaching or presenting a subject 
to him. The first step is to secure his attention; second, to 
maintain his attention until you have developed interest; 
third, to develop the interest to a point where it results in 
action; and fourth, the teacher must guide this action into 
desired (efficient) results. The industrial school instructor 
succeeds in the same degree as he applies successfully the 
above methods to teaching. 



102 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

The teaching lesson in industrial work may be divided 
into two methods: the information method for teaching 
shop-work and the development method for teaching trade 
technical work such as industrial science. The lesson may- 
be presented according to the following steps: preparation, 
presentation, application, testing, and generalization. In 
teaching shop-work the first step, preparation, should in- 
clude a direct review or statement of the aim by the teacher. 
The second step should include a demonstration, lecture, or 
illustration, or a continuation of the subject by the instruc- 
tor. The third step, application, should apply the method, 
and the pupil follows it in doing the thing taught. The next 
step, testing, should be a test of the pupil's ability, which is 
usually given in the shop by assigning him a piece of work, 
or a recitation or examination (written or oral). The last 
step, generalization, leads the pupil, under the direction of 
the teacher, to generalize and to apply the lesson to many 
situations which are not similar. This step may not always 
be required. It depends on the advancement of the pupil. 
It is usually omitted in elementary work. 

The first step in the development method includes brief 
questions or "key- words" to recall to the pupil's mind all 
information on the subject, that the new ideas may be 
"tacked" on to the old. Step two includes the experiment, 
demonstration, illustration, or combination. The applica- 
tion step allows the pupil to work out his own method and to 
follow it in doing the work taught. The next step is a direct 
test of the lesson on the job, or recitation or examination. 

Since this type of boy is not naturally interested in the 
academic work related to his trade, the problem of present- 
ing the academic subjects is a difficult one. The interest in 
academic work may be aroused by correlating these subjects 
with the practical work. To illustrate : every project, or in 
fact all shop-work, involves some principles of English, 



TEACHING IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 103 

mathematics, and science. After the boy has worked on a 
machine, there is a natural curiosity to know something 
about it. It is then time to explain the principles of science 
in terms of the daily experiences of the boy on the machine. 
The same is true in regard to mathematics. A written re- 
port on the work of the day would be the basis of the English 
lesson. In this manner an incentive is offered to the boy 
which creates an interest for the study of English, mathe- 
matics, science, and history. 1 

This method of teaching, practice and thinking about the 
practice, is the way a great many young people, who have 
had difficulty in mastering abstract principles and themes 
as taught by the old book method of memorizing, have 
been able to grasp them: not only to grasp them, but to 
retain and comprehend them. The practice should always 
precede the theory, and the two should be intimately asso- 
ciated together so that both constitute an approach and a 
reinforcement. 

The old-fashioned schoolmaster has been teaching the 
motor-minded child during adolescence on the logical basis, 
on the assumption that he could grasp the principles of 
drawing, pure mathematics, and pure science before the ap- 
plication. This was due to the fact that the mechanical arts 
and scientific subjects were taught after the methods of the 
colleges and professional schools, where pupils were abstract- 
minded and could be taught on logical lines. There may 
be some justification for abstract teaching, particularly the 
theory before the application, in the college and professional 
school, but there is absolutely none in vocational and pre- 
vocational schools which are preparing the motor-minded 
child for some specific vocation. 

In fact technical schools of every type, including the col- 
leges, are beginning to recognize that practice and thinking 
1 gee pages 104, 105 r 



104 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

about the practice, in any given calling, must be closely 
related. Forty years ago the best medical schools provided 
courses in lectures supplemented by demonstrations by the 
teacher. The student performed little if any practical work 
in anatomy. To-day medical schools have laboratories, 
hospitals, and dispensary work to introduce the begin- 
nings of practical experience. The same holds true for 
training in engineering schools, nautical schools, agricultural 
colleges, etc. 

One of the most difficult problems in a vocational school 
is the question of discipline. The average teacher thinks his 
success depends upon a rigid organization with many rules. 
A successful industrial school is one that can train boys effi- 
ciently. In order to do this it is necessary to have an or- 
ganization and some rules. Discipline is a means to an end. 
The success of the organization depends upon every pupil 
conforming to the rules and customs of the school. 

The usual type of boy in an industrial school is inclined to 
do things in his own way and to question authority. There- 
fore the principal and teachers must have the ability to deal 
with this type of boy, to get along with him, and to win his 
confidence and respect. Then through kindness but firm- 
ness, the boy must be taught that habits of obedience must 
be formed. It may be mechanical at first, but it will become 
natural by experience and education. The pupil must be 
dealt with in such a way as to strengthen his character. 
Every case of discipline in a school is an individual problem, 
and must be settled as such through the cooperation of 
home, school, and the teacher, always remembering to 
strengthen the boy's character. 

A skilled workman is the result of not only shop skill, but 
trade intelligence. He must not only know what he is to do, 
and how he should do it, but why he should do it. Why he 
is to do it involves a knowledge of the principles of English, 



Used 

Hours 

on 

each tool 




'o 

O 
h 

1 


List of 

parts of 

power tools 


Used 

Hours 

on 

each tool 




m 

s 


List of 

tools 

in trade 






-J 0) 


List of 
materials in 
stock-room 


Ph 


To become famil- 
iar with the tools 
of the ship -fitting 
trade. To note 
the condition of 
tools when issued 
new and their con- 
dition when re- 
turned, whether 
ill-used or abused, 
the best method 
of repairing tools 
for reissue; to de- 
cide when defec- 
tive tools should 
be discarded 


a.*"-* 


Tool-room 
Handling 
tools 
Receive, stow, 
and issue new 
tools; repair 
them ; all un- 
der the direc- 
tion of the 
experienced 
mechanic 


Total number of 
hours devoted 
to a job 


o 




a 



o 

^ o 

1 1 

W H 

H 55 



& 
£ 



I 09 L BO 

^ lis 
18 3 

ta % 3 O 

thai 

— ' £ WD tf O 

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pu^.s a. a 



8 

CO 







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'O 2-i 
a £3 

C3.2 O 
a > 8 

&£.a 

o 

.a a ? 

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■fi'fi 



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o 5 



TEACHING IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 107 

mathematics, the science and drawing that are the founda- 
tion stones of the trade, and which are often called the re- 
lated knowledge of the trade. 

The aim of the course and the type of pupil both dominate 
to a large degree the course of study. The course for a 
skilled tradesman would be different from a course for a 
helper in the same trade. The same is true in regard to an 
industrial course in a college grade school of technology and 
in a trade school. The average type of pupil in a trade 
school may be described as follows: 

a. Limited general education (average seventh grade). 

b. Practical mind. 

c. Dislike of regular school methods. 

d. Must be aroused through greatest interest (his trade). 

e. Looks for immediate returns in education. 
/. Thinks only in one-step reasoning. 

The methods of teaching must appeal to the type of boy. 

1. Objective teaching. 

a. An actual shop experience. 

b. The object itself; or, 

c. A model; or, 

d. Lantern slide; or, 

e. Picture; or, 
/. Diagram. 

2. One-step reasoning. 

a. Series of questions, or problems in mathematics, 
sciences, etc., based on shop experience, etc. 

b. Discussion of questions and problems. 

c. Answers written in a book with sketches. / 

d. Individual teaching. 

Evening classes in industrial subjects represent one of the 
most effective systems of training those already at work. 
The most ambitious workers in every industry desire to ob- 
tain a practical education that will advance them in their 
vocations. The extraordinary success of the correspondence 



108 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

school in large cities is another indication of the desire of 
many workmen to improve themselves in their general voca- 
tions. Over sixteen hundred students were enrolled in these 
schools from one city of one hundred thousand inhabitants. 
The disadvantages of instruction by correspondence are 
many, but such instruction is better than none at all. There 
are thousands of men in every community intellectually in- 
capable of benefiting by this course. Not more than three 
in one hundred complete their course; in fact the Interna- 
tional Correspondence School admitted, in an article pub- 
lished a few years ago in the American Machinist, that but 
2.6 per cent of their students have been awarded a certificate 
or diploma. The vast majority of men enrolling are soon 
discouraged and frequently lose faith in their work. 

Evening industrial classes, in order to be most effective 
for the average worker, must be planned and organized on 
different lines from the day technical classes. The type of 
student attending evening trade classes, after a hard day's 
work, has an intensely practical aim in view, and is unwilling 
to study systematically an entire subject, as might be ex- 
pected from young people in a day school. They demand 
that the instruction shall lead directly to the specific things 
they want to know. If they are obliged to spend a month 
or more on preliminary work, the value of which they do not 
know, they will soon become discouraged and leave. 

Then again, mechanics and other tradesmen, who may, 
perhaps, have some reputation in their trades, and who wish 
to perfect themselves in certain technical lines, do not wish 
to be grouped with younger persons, feeling that such per- 
sons, having recently come from the public schools, are bet- 
ter able to answer questions, use better English, and appear 
to better advantage. In other words, adults are often sensi- 
tive about the comparisons which the younger members of 
the class are apt to make at their expense. 



TEACHING IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 109 

Every worker attends an evening technical class to satisfy 
a definite need. To illustrate: a young apprentice in a 
machine-shop finds difficulty in reading a blue-print. He 
enrolls in an evening drawing school to meet this need. The 
teacher is a mechanical draftsman, and he thinks the best 
way to know how to read a blue-print is to be able to make 
one. The young pupil is taught lettering, how to draw 
straight and curved lines, and to make simple drawings. 
The student's fingers are hardened from rough work and he 
finds it difficult to manipulate the fine drawing instruments. 
During all of this time he is receiving, in his daily work, the 
same reprimands, and is therefore debating in his own 
mind the value of the drawing course. It is undoubtedly 
true that the drawing course outlined by this teacher is a 
valuable one for teaching mechanical drawing to those who 
are to become draftsmen, but the average apprentice ma- 
chinist, such as this young man, does not see the direct appli- 
cation of this instruction to his daily need. He enrolled in 
the drawing class for a definite purpose. To be sure, it was 
a narrow one, but, nevertheless, it had economic value to 
him. The training in mechanical drawing which a ma- 
chinist needs is not the same as that of a draftsman. This 
young man shows that he needs a course in blue-print read- 
ing and in arithmetic for machinists. 

Evening school instruction in technical classes should 
be divided into small unit courses so as to satisfy a definite 
need. Just what unit courses should be offered in a school 
may be determined by allowing one whole week for prelim- 
inary registration, that every worker may attend and talk 
over the educational needs of the different industries. 

Instructors in evening industrial classes should be practi- 
cal men and women, with considerable trade experience. 
Considerable shop practice should be used in applying the 
principles underlying the trade. The actual blue-prints, 



110 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

shop problems, and methods should be used in this course. 
Subjects that do not find continual application in the trade 
should be given in the advanced rather than in the elemen- 
tary course. The instruction in the various branches of 
mathematics should be adapted to meet the needs of the 
machinist, the plumber, and the carpenter. The terms used 
in the schoolroom should be expressed in the language of the 
shop and the mill. 

All technical students should be classified, as far as pos- 
sible, into classes according to their trades; for example, a 
class in arithmetic for engineers and a separate class in the 
same subject for boiler firemen. Again, the textile design- 
ers should have a class in arithmetic, called "cloth calcula- 
tions." This idea carries out the plan of the old trade guild 
of a few centuries ago. Each guild was formed for the pur- 
pose of social intercourse and mental stimulus. Each trade 
had its own guild. The daily trade experiences of each 
member became the property of all members. Discussions 
relating to the practices of their chosen trade occupied their 
attention. So to-day workmen have common interests. 
When evening students are grouped according to their occu- 
pations they have an opportunity to talk over their interests. 
The teacher should act as a leader, draw from the students 
discussions of their trade experiences, and through the ex- 
pression of these various opinions solve the problems. It 
may be difficult to get students to recite and express them- 
selves at the blackboard, but a free discussion of the point 
at issue makes the student lose his self-consciousness, and 
before he is aware of what he is doing, he is at the board 
illustrating his particular method of solution. Of course 
such discussions should be under the wise guidance of the 
teacher. 

Trade training for helpers and semi-skilled workmen is 
more intensive than that provided for the skilled mechanic. 



TEACHING IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 111 

There are two reasons why this is true; first, the training 
necessary for the helper and semi-skilled worker is very 
limited, and requires practice in one or two operations only, 
as chipping and calking; secondly, these workers have in- 
tensely practical aims and desire a type of simple instruction 
bearing directly on their work, and they are not willing to 
study systematically the related branches of their occupa- 
tions. 

Courses for helpers vary from a week to six weeks in 
length, and consist of seven hours' practical trade instruc- 
tion and a one hour talk, by the shop instructor, who is a 
skilled mechanic. In order to reduce the cost of instruction, 
the pupils usually practice together under the immediate 
direction of the shop instructor. For example, in teaching 
house carpenters to calk wooden boats a model frame with 
cracks is built. The carpenters practice, day after day, calk- 
ing the seams, until they are able to do the work satisfac- 
torily. The talk by the instructor consists of descriptions 
of tools, how to avoid the difficulties encountered, and the 
reading of a blue-print. 

The method of imparting instruction to these men is best 
given through the question-and-answer form. Sheets may 
be prepared with the questions and answers on them and 
each helper given a sheet to read over. While this method 
of teaching has not the approval of the general educator, for 
many reasons it is the time-tried successful method of all 
short-term trade courses. It is the most effective method 
for this type of worker, and should be encouraged among 
short unit courses for helpers and the semi-skilled workers. 



112 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Lesson Sheets on Intensive Training in Steam 
Engineering for Engineers 

questions and answers 

Q. If you were called on to take charge of a plant, what would 
be your first duty? 

A. To ascertain the exact condition of the boiler and all its 
attachments (safety-valve, steam-gauge, pump, injector), and the 
engine. 

Q. How often would you blow off and clean your boilers if you 
had ordinary water to use? 

A. Once a month. 

Q. What steam pressure will be allowed on a boiler fifty inches 
in diameter, three-eighths of an inch thick, 60,000 T.S., one-sixth 
of tensile strength factor of safety? 

A. One sixth of tensile strength of plate multiplied by thickness 
of plate, divided by one half of the diameter of the boiler, gives safe 
working pressure. 

Q. How much heating surface is allowed per horse-power by 
builders of boilers? 

A. Twelve to fifteen feet for tubular and flue boilers. 

Q. How do you estimate the strength of a boiler? 

A. By its diameter and thickness of metal. 

Q. Which is the better, single or double riveting? 

A. Double riveting is from sixteen to twenty per cent stronger 
than single. 

Q. How much grate surface do boiler-makers allow per horse- 
power? 

A. About two thirds of a square foot. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 

1. Some instructors in wood-working trade classes frequently begin with 
exercises intended to teach the boy the fundamental principles of con- 
struction. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of such a 
course. 

2. Explain why some mechanics like the so-called "catechism method/ 
question and answer. Does each question involve much more than a 
single-step reasoning? 

3. Which is the easier to learn, how to run a lathe, or the mechanical 
principles underlying its working ? 



TEACHING IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 113 

4. A superintendent of apprentices in a machine-shop makes a practice 
of writing personal letters to apprentices if they do good work, and a 
letter to their parents if the work is poor. Is this a good practice? 
Why? 

5. Is it possible to devise a program of industrial education that would 
train all-round practical tradesmen? 

6. A number of prominent technical educators contend that to-day there 
are certain studies and practices that serve as a basis for general 
industrial training. What is the objection to such a plan? 

7. What arguments may be offered for urging a systematic industrial 
education in some trade requiring various operations, over a form of 
training involving a series of special operations found in a highly spe- 
cialized occupation? 

8. Visit an industrial school and note the difference in aim, method, and 
type of pupil from that of the regular high school. 

9. To what extent and under what conditions do the results in practical 
experience in general — that is, skill, knowledge, appreciation, and 
ideals in one trade — constitute an advantage for entrance into 
another trade? 

10. Does the experience of a well-trained machinist benefit him in any 
way when training to be a house carpenter? 

11. To what extent does the general experience of a farmer's boy assist 
him when training to be a machinist? 

12. Visit a number of different industries and trades, and notice the dif- 
ference in physical development, ability to explain, etc., between the 
clerks (office help) and mechanics, highly skilled mechanics, helpers, 
etc. Classify them as "motor-minded" or "book-minded." 

13. Explain the psychological reason why (a) a pupil who has learned to 
run a speed lathe will learn how to run an engine lathe more quickly 
than a pupil without any knowledge of either machine; (b) a pattern- 
maker's apprentice who has made a visit to the foundry and observed 
the work will learn how to "draw" a pattern more quickly than a boy 
who drives a grocery wagon; (c) a boy who has done some printing at 
home on a hand-press will understand the operation of a power-press 
better than a boy who has worked at wood-working; (d) a boat-builder 
will learn house carpentry quicker than a coppersmith. 

14. Is it necessary for a pupil to have developed an industrial aim, desire 
to learn a trade, before entering an industrial school? 

15. Why is it important that an industrial school should imitate industry 
as far as possible? 

16. Is the college grade industrial school student usually as interested in 
the theoretical discussion of a machine as he is in running the machine? 
Why? 



114 I INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



LIST OF REFERENCES FOR FUTURE READING 

* The Instructor, the Man and the Job. Charles R. Allen. 

(A splendid discussion of methods that may be used in teaching 
tradesmen.) 
** Principles of Secondary School Instruction. Charles De Garma. 

(Splendid discussion of methods adapted for the adolescent.) 
** Methods of Teaching Industrial Subjects. Handbook of Vocational 
Education. Joseph S. Taylor. 

(Short discussion of methods.) 

* Organization and Methods of Teaching Vocational Classes. Massachu- 

setts Board of Education. Bulletin no. 3. 

(A very fine discussion on methods based on experience in Massa- 
chusetts.) 

* Outline of Lessons. Institute of Teachers. Bulletin published by Wis- 

consin State Board of Industrial Education. 

(Lessons worked out by industrial school instructors in Wis- 
consin.) 



CHAPTER XI 7 

METHODS OF TEACHING SHOP-WORK 

There are four distinct ways in which one may be trained 
in shop practice: first, by a mastery of the tools and ma- 
chines of the trade; second, through developing a skill in the 
fundamental operations of the trade; third, through a knowl- 
edge or skill of working the materials of the trade; and fourth, 
developing skill in the application of the principles of metal- 
working. 

The first method is generally used in the mechanical en- 
gineering department of a college or a technical school of 
college grade. The instructor teaches the student the theo- 
retical principles on which each tool and machine is based. 
In the machine-shop trade, it would include the theory of 
cutting-speed, principles of each hand- and power-tool, sup- 
plemented by the mathematical problems underlying the 
work. After the student has received this instruction, sup- 
plemented by a diagram or blue-print, he is sent to the 
school shop to receive training in the practice. The purpose 
of this instruction is to give the student who has the capacity 
to deal with abstract technical knowledge a training in both 
the practice and theory of machine-shop work. He is to 
use this knowledge as an expert, designer, etc., not as a 
journeyman. The shop-work is usually a series of exercises 
to illustrate a principle. The method of imparting this in- 
struction is from general principles to definite practices in 
the shop, and gives very good results for the type of school. 

The second method has always been used effectively in 
training apprentices to be journeymen. The students are 
taught by coming in actual contact with shop conditions. 



116 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

In the machine-shop they have experience on the different 
machines, doing actual commercial work; they see that cut- 
ting-speeds are used on certain metals, and learn how to use 
the various devices. They learn by practice the mechanical 
parts of the machine first without the theoretical principle 
involved. This method of teaching is from definite practice 
to abstract principle. 

The steps in teaching a lesson in shop-work may be di- 
vided into four parts: first, getting the young apprentice 
started thinking about the new trade which he is about to 
take up, trying the unfamiliar things, presently to be im- 
parted, with the things he knows, in general arousing his in- 
terest and winning his confidence. This step may be called 
the "preparation." The master or skilled mechanic does 
this in many ways; by asking the learner many questions 
which lead him to think about the new work, then demon- 
strating work with tools or showing him finished work and 
explaining its nature, or by relating interesting illustrations 
drawn from the experience of the master or skilled mechanic. 

After the way has been prepared by leading the appren- 
tice to think about his new work, and interesting him in it, 
a simple but definite operation of the trade practice is ex- 
plained to him, and he is expected to carry it out, which is 
step number two, presentation. The apprentice is next 
allowed to carry out the simple operation under actual 
commercial conditions, the instructor supervising the work. 
This step is called "application." 

The next step is testing the subject-matter of the lesson. 
During this step various errors in teaching crop out. For 
example, attempt to teach too much at one time, failure to 
make each teaching step plain before starting on the next, 
lack of patience, tact, or interest. The instructor should 
make an attempt to find out why the student fails, and 
should then try to improve upon his own teaching. 



TEACHING SHOP-WORK 117 

Where an instructor is obliged to teach shop-work to a 
class of fifteen or more pupils, the steps in presenting a lesson 
are as follows : demonstration by the teachers, practice steps 
by the pupils, and the tests given by the teachers. The dem- 
onstration includes the preliminary talk to the pupils on 
such points as the common names of tools, uses of tools, 
blue-prints, or sets of patterns, measurements or steps in 
shop practice, etc. The industrial interest in the pupil is 
sufficient to hold the attention. The practice steps should 
follow the demonstration, and should consist of one pupil 
performing the work under the direction of the teacher, in 
the presence of the class. The teacher should correct all 
mistakes made by the pupil and offer suggestions at the 
same time. The mistakes made by the pupil represent the 
common mistakes, and should be listed on the blackboard as 
such. This step is an economical device to save the teacher 
repeating all corrections to every pupil. The last step 
should be a test given by the teacher to the pupils. The 
teacher should follow each pupil's work and give individual 
instruction. Scrap pieces of stock, etc., may be used for 
drill purposes on certain points that the pupil fails to grasp. 
Pupils should be taught as of old on projects that have com- 
mercial value, and the instruction should be carried out in 
a commercial way. This is very necessary, for the habits 
the pupils form are the ones they will use; therefore develop 
commercial habits. Develop the habits of skill in the way 
they are to be used. 

Thus we see the most effective means of producing skill is 
to secure interest (industrial); then explanation, example, 
and drill follow. Example is better than rule; imitation 
more effective than explanation. 

Many industrial teachers make a grave mistake by ex- 
plaining rather than showing to the motor-minded type of 
child. Imitation is one of the strongest instincts and should 



118 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

be utilized to greatest advantage. The instructor should 
not insist too strongly on a particular method. Remember 
there are various ways of performing an operation; one 
method may be good for some, others may profit by a 
different method. To attempt to force students to use the 
same methods is a terrible waste of energy to some pupils. 

One of the first questions that come before a shop instruc- 
tor in an industrial school is, How shall I arrange my shop- 
work so as to give the pupils the most efficient and economi- 
cal course? As we saw on page 25 the average mechanic 
obtains his trade in an unorganized manner, often by steal- 
ing it. Under this last method there is no question but 
that there is a terrible waste going on in training mechanics. 
The most effective system of teaching a trade to those who 
are about to become journeymen is to assign to each pupil a 
series of jobs arranged in a progressive order. The simplest 
job is one that involves the fewest elements of mechanical 
control regardless of the number of operations. Since there 
are simple and difficult operations in each machine, it is 
clear that the spiral and not the unit method should be 
used. In the machine-shop trade drilling on an upright 
drill, with template, then with jigs and fixtures, may be 
considered as a good beginning. Rough work may be given 
to a beginner, in which the operator removes considerable 
amount of material with leeway with regard to dimensions, 
such as turning down square bar stock to rough round in a 
lathe. The finishing cuts may be given to the advanced 
students. Complex work that demands considerable judg- 
ment, setting-up work on milling machines, etc., are gen- 
erally given to the advanced students. 

In order to hold interest and retain a high standard of 
skill, it is absolutely necessary to have the pupils work on 
real jobs having commercialized value: otherwise the shop- 
work standard will be low and consist of a series of routine 



TEACHING SHOP-WORK 119 

performances. The pupil does not have the interest and 
lacks initiative in his work under these conditions. 

The training of students for shop practice should be care- 
fully planned so that the apprentice may receive an all- 
round shop experience, and not be held on any one type of 
work at the expense of his training in other phases of work 
in his trade. This has been one of the most difficult peda- 
gogical problems in industrial schools, especially those laying 
great stress on productive work, as corporation apprentice 
schools. A shop for teaching apprentices is usually laid out 
to do commercial work and the foremen and other leading 
men are hired on their ability for shop production. There is 
a great temptation for both the officials and mechanics to 
keep apprentices on work that they can do to the advantage 
of the shop. Therefore it is absolutely necessary, in the in- 
terest of the proper training of the apprentice, to have a card 
made out showing time allotment in hours or months, in the 
different lines of work practiced in the trade. It is possible 
for the apprentice to record the time spent on each type of 
work, that he may see the progress he is making. In case 
the student is being used as a helper on highly specialized 
work, or kept too long on one class of work, he can appeal to 
the master of the trade. The officials are able to record the 
work of the boy to better advantage. 

The training of an apprentice in the shop practice of a 
trade should include, among other things, the following: 

At least one month in the tool-room handling tools under 
the direction of an experienced hand. The student should 
be taught shop and manufacturers' names of the tools, the 
difference between the condition of tools when issued and 
their condition when returned. In this way he will become 
familiar with the defects of tools, know how to repair them, 
and to decide when tools should be discarded. 

At least one month in the stock- or fitting-room under the 



120 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

direction of a skilled mechanic, who will teach the boy the 
names of the different kinds of stock and fittings. At an 
early period of course the apprentice should perform the 
menial and disagreeable part of the trade requiring little 
training or skill. For at least one year the apprentice should 
be under the guidance of the trained men so as to prepare 
well for the time when he will be thrown on his own re- 
sources. He should be trained in work that will develop 
responsibility and accuracy, care in the operation of expen- 
sive or heavy machinery. 

One month during the last year of the apprenticeship 
should be spent in the estimating department to show the 
need of economical work, with regard to the cost of labor, 
time, and material. The most difficult part of the work 
should be completed during the last year. This work should 
be done entirely from plans and develops responsibility. 

The apprentice or student should pursue his course ac- 
cording to conditions advantageous both to the student and 
to the employer. He should first learn the names of the 
tools, then work with an experienced mechanic, and later be 
allowed to work alone under a foreman or supervisor. To 
illustrate: if it is desired to have a course for a machinist's 
apprentice, it is first necessary to determine the kind of work 
and the machines necessary to do the work efficiently. The 
following represents the different kinds of work; stock-room, 
tool-cribs, forge- work, bench- work (filing), lathe practice 
(speed and engine), drill-press work, plain milling- work, 
cylindrical grinding, surface grinding, screw machines, 
planer and shaper, small-tool manufacturing (reamers, cut- 
ters), hardening, tempering and heat treatment, tool manu- 
facturing (jigs, fixtures), punchers and dies, general repairs, 
general manufacturing, and assembling parts. 

The accompanying card shows a form that is sometimes 
used to keep a record of the apprentice's shop experience or 





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122 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



practice. The content of the trade practice should be divided 
into a series of machine, tool, and shop practices. After 
each unit of the series the number of weeks' practice nec- 
essary to make the apprentice efficient should be placed. 
For example, the series of units for an apprentice course 
in machine shop- work might consist of the following: 



Order 


Kind of work 


Time in 
weeks 


Year 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 


Stock-room 

Tool-crib 

Forge- shop 

Bench-work 

Lathes, speed and engine 

Drilling 


4 
4 
4 
8 
16 
10 


First year 
50 weeks 


7 


Milling, planer 


»\£ 




8 

9 

10 


Cylindrical grinding 
Surface grinding 
Screw machines 


8 

8 

12 


Second year 
50 weeks 


11 


Planer, shaper 


i»|» 




12 
13 


Small-tool manufacturing 
Hardening, tempering 
Heat treatment 


16 
16 


Third year 
50 weeks 


14 


Tool manufacturing jig fixtures 


!.{« 




15 
16 
17 
18 


Punch and dies 
General repairs 
General manufacturing 
Assembling 


16 
12 
10 

8 


Fourth year 
50 weeks 




200 weeks 





A working week consists of 48 hours making 200 X 48 = 
9600 hours in the complete course. Each week a record 
should be made, on a weekly shop record sheet, of the time 
spent by each apprentice on the different kinds of work. 

A formal report should be made every six months of the 
apprentice's shop-work and his related class instruction. 



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124 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

This record should be placed on the apprentice's life card, 
which is a permanent record of the school and should be 
kept by the supervisor of apprentices. 

The apprentice shop report should include, in addition to 
work done, a mark of either very good (A), average (B), or 
unsatisfactory (C), on the following characteristics, speed, 
reliability, workmanship, industry, initiative, tact, aptitude, 
analytical ability, knowledge, enthusiasm, personality, and 
decision. It would also be valuable to have a record show- 
ing in what "he excels " or "is deficient." 

A pupil or apprentice in a vocational or an apprentice 
school should be graded according to the standards of a 
successful mechanic. To illustrate: a successful all-round 
machinist should possess the following qualifications: adapt- 
ability, speed, be able to do good work (quality), be reliable 
(conduct), and punctual (regular in reporting for work). 

A pupil or apprentice should be rated monthly in these 
characteristics. The mark may be expressed in percentages : 

ExceUent 95-100 A 

Very good 90-95 B 

Good 85-90 C 

Fair 80-85 D 

Passable 70-80 E 

Failed Below 70 F 

Lesson sheets should be prepared on machines with the 
parts marked with numbers. The names corresponding 
to the numbers may be placed to the right. Pictures or 
illustrations on lesson sheets showing the operator tending 
the machine, may be given to the pupil. There may be 
questions on the illustration as follows: 

What is the name of this machine? 
How is the power furnished to run the machine? 
Name the parts of the machine that you can see, and tell the use 
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TEACHING SHOP-WORK 127 

What is the name of the operation? 
How is the stock held in the machine? 

Name the different attachments of the machine on the wall 
and floor? 

Illustrations showing the position of tools may be dis- 
played and questions asked about the use of the tools. For 
example: the following shows the position of a file and 
questions that may be asked. 




What is a file? 

For what purpose is a file used? 

How is a file made? 

Of what metals are files made? 

What is the tang of a file? 

Name the other parts of a file. 

Why is a file sometimes curved instead of being flat? 

How should a file be grasped? 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 

1. If an instructor in wood-working gives exercises followed by an appli- 
cation of these exercises, in the form of production, does this method 
constitute good shop training? Why? 

2. Give a unit of instruction for the following trades: house carpentry, 
machine-shop work, plumbing, printing, and electrical work. 

3. Give a list of units in machine-shop work based on the unit progres- 
sion; on special progression. 

4. The pupil as soon as he enters a trade school desires to wear overalls. 
Why? 

5. Why will an apprentice house carpenter learn to read house plans and 
take off quantities of material from the plan, more so than would a 
dry-goods salesman. 

6. Should an apprentice make solder before learning to wipe joints? 
Why? 



128 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

7. A pupil between the ages of fourteen and sixteen desires to learn steam 
engineering; would you teach him to fire first or read the water glass? 

8. A pattern-maker should know something about foundry work. One 
instructor suggested starting the pattern-maker in the foundry; an- 
other said let him go in after his first year of study. Which is right, 
and why? 

9. Apprentices are often called upon to know about subjects they have 
not worked upon, but have seen. Is this just to the apprentice? 

10. Apprentices are obliged to ask mechanics the names of tools. Is this 
a good plan? 

11. Is it possible for a skilled mechanic who is teaching shop-work in the 
school every day, to lose the manipulative skill required in the shop 
practice? 

12. A boy is kept a definite time on each machine in a machine-shop 
course. Is this good teaching? 

13. A teamster and an apprentice machinist were both admitted to an 
evening machine-shop course. Which one will make the greater 
progress? Why? 

14. If you were asked to teach a group of boys how to run a lathe, how 
would you proceed? 

15. A survey of the existing methods of teaching shop practice in school 
and life would show the following: 

a. Under the old-fashioned apprenticeship system the skilled jour- 
neyman showed the apprentice how to do the work. 

6. The evening trade school instructor tells his pupil, who has al- 
ready received some shop training, how to do a piece of work. 

c. In many mechanical establishments the apprentice helps the 
skilled mechanic, and is expected to observe how a job is done. 

d. In short-term private trade schools with limited facilities the 
pupil, with very little practical experience, simply observes how a job 
is done. 

e. In a first-class apprenticeship system, in a private corporation, 
the apprentice does the job under the direction of a shop instructor, 
who explains the reasons why. 

/. Many apprentices learn their trade by applying to a shop as a 
mechanic, and performing the work without any direction or assist- 
ance. 

g. Apprentices sometimes are obliged to read from a book of shop 
practice how a job is done. 

h. Some secondary industrial schools have the pupil perform the 
job in the school shop, and then make a drawing of it. 

i. Industrial schools of limited equipment teach pupils from a book 
on shop practice, reading from the book and then reciting. Explain 
the advantages and disadvantages of each method. 



TEACHING SHOP-WORK * 129 



LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING 

* Organization and Methods of Teaching Vocational (shop) Subjects. 

Massachusetts State Board of Education. Bulletin no. 3. 

(A discussion of methods of teaching for shop-work as worked 
out in Massachusetts.) 

* The Instructor, the Man, and the Job. Charles R. Allen. 

(A discussion of methods that will apply to all forms of shop- 
work, especially the commercial shop.) 

* Part-Time Trade and Industrial Schools. Bulletin no. 19. 

** Buildings and Equipment for Schools and Classes in Trade and Industrial 
Subjects. Bulletin no. 20. Federal Board for Vocational Education, 
Washington, D.C. 

(These publications represent the latest thought on the subject of 
organization and methods of teaching.) 



CHAPTER XII 

METHODS OF TEACHING INTERPRETATION OF BLUE- 
PRINTS AND SHOP SKETCHING 

The language of shop practice is the blue-print. Direc- 
tions are given to a mechanic on a blue-print, which consists 
of drawings representing the work the mechanic is to per- 
form. Therefore every mechanic should be able to inter- 
pret a blue-print. In addition, he should be able to express 
his mechanical ideas on paper in the form of a sketch. 

The drawing that an apprentice will need for his trade is 
quite different from that required by the draftsman in the 
same industry. A journeyman primarily requires the knowl- 
edge to read a blue-print, to look for dimensions, lay-out of 
holes, and to be able to make rough drawings of the work. 
A draftsman requires the ability to design, which necessi- 
tates the power to think in the abstract. Some very suc- 
cessful teachers provide the same course in mechanical 
drawing for the apprentice machinist and the apprentice 
draftsman. They fail to consider the difference in purpose 
of the two courses, and the different types of mind, which 
require different methods and content. While there may be 
some justification in teaching exercises in drawing lines, for 
the abstract-minded pupils, who desire to learn mechanical 
drawing, and who take education on faith, it is not the 
method for the pupil of intensely practical mind, who de- 
sires to know how to make a drawing in order to assist him 
as a mechanic. What is gained in technique by the exer- 
cise method is overcome by the lack of interest and failure 
to make proper connections. The practical-minded pupil 



TEACHING INTERPRETATION OF BLUE-PRINTS 131 

is more interested in an object he is drawing than in the 
method of drawing. 

Courses in drawing for apprentices or trade students in 
a vocational school should begin with sketching pictorial 
views of simple tools, appliances, etc., drawn by means of an 
ordinary school rule and simple school compass. Then show 
that it is necessary to have more than one view to bring out 
all the details. These views may be obtained by drawing 
one side of the object at a time. Each side is called a view. 
Usually three views are required to bring out all details — 
the plan, elevation, and end view. The following sketches 
of a planer block for machinists will illustrate the views. 




CO/) 


PUAN 


VIEW 






i 









CO 

END VIEW 




A. The pictorial view represents the view as it appears to the eye. The views over B 
represent the three views of the planer block arranged in proper order for a working draw- 
ing. The view marked (a) is called the plan view, and shows the top of the block as seen 
by looking in the direction of the arrow marked (I). The view marked (6) is called the 
elevation view, and is the side of the block looking in the direction of the arrow marked 
(II). The end view, marked (c) is the side as seen by looking in the direction of the arrow 
marked (III). The parts which cannot be seen must be shown by dotted lines in the views. 



The first day an apprentice or a pupil is in a shop he sees 
that the teacher and mechanic talk through rough sketches 
or drawings. Therefore a boy or apprentice should work as 
soon as possible from a sketch or drawing. He soon learns 
to look to the drawing for information; that there are certain 
forms in which this information is put, dimensions, different 
views, kinds of materials, etc. 



132 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



Put information in form by simple shop sketches (free- 
hand or mechanical) that carry the data. Be sure the 
sketch contains all the points regardless of crudeness of 
form at finish. 



Lesson Sheet on Drawing Square Flatter for Blacksmiths without 
dimensions 




J 



^ 



Draw end view here 



Draw plan view here 

Square Flatter 



Lesson Sheet on Drawing If inches Matched Flooring for House 
Carpenters 



Draw plan view 

here. 
Length 5 inches 



Draw side view 
here 




TEACHING INTERPRETATION OF BLUE-PRINTS 133 

Lesson Sheet on Drawing a Boiler Tube for Boilermakers 




Boiler Tube 



Draw one size of Boiler Tube from Dimensions of following Table 



A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


G 


lY 2 in. 


.393 


1.767 


.095 in. 
.109 in. 


.419 

.480 


13 
12 


1%'tn. 


.458 


2.405 


.095 in. 
.109 in. 


.494 
.566 


13 
12 


2 in. 


.524 


3.142 


.095 in. 
.109 in. 
.12 in. 


.589 
.654 
.709 


13 
12 
11 


2*4 in. 


.589 


3.976 


.095 in. 
.109 in. 
.12 in. 


.643 
.739 
.803 


13 
12 
11 



A = Outside diameter. 

B = Square feet of heating surface per foot of length. 
C = Area of section in square inches. 
D = Thickness of tube in inches, s 
E = Area of metal in square inches- 
\G = Birmingham wire gauge. 



134 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

L-j3on Sheet on Drawing a Standard Weaker for Skipfitters 




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- J - 


- - ; - 




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: - - 


-: — 


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; , - 




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^ - 


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; — 




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i~. - 




.163 in. 



TEACHING INTERPRETATION OF BLUE-PRINTS 1S5 

Lesson Sheet on Draining a Hexagonal Wrench 



—CTT 



J 



YT 



S7b 



$ 



Hexagonal Wrench 






Z)raw ora Sis^ 0/ Wrench from Dimensions in Table Showing 
Wrench Proportions 

B=WX.8 
D=WX.6o 
E=WX .4 
F=WX.2o 
L=WX7 
A = Size of nut 



A 


W 


B 


D 


E 


F 


L 


C 


%'w. 


Uiein. 


% in. 


Hie in. 


Tie in. 


%in. 


7 vie in. 


%in. 


s i in. 


l L iin. 












23 32 in. 


Vs in. 


1 Vie in. 












27 32 in. 


1 in. 


1% in. 












1 ^i6 in. 


l 1 ^ in. 


I 13 i6in. 












1 1 32 in. 


lHin. 


2 in. 












1 5 32 in. 



Complete this table 



136 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



Lesson Sheet on Drawing Conventional Threads; 

r 9 THDS PER IN. 




Square Head Bolt 

Note : Bolt is too long for sheet and is shown with piece broken out. 
Make the threads as shown above. This is not supposed to be a true representation of 
threads but is one of many short cuts to save time. These are called conventional methods. 



Lesson in Drawing Showing the Method of Sawing t 




1 = Circles of Growth. 

2 =r Medullary rays. 
A = Bastard sawing. 

B — Method of quarter sawing. 

C = Best method of quarter sawing. 

Draw the above figure about twice this size 



TEACHING INTERPRETATION OF BLUE-PRINTS 137 

Lesson Sheet on Drawing a Matched Joint 




Draw the above figure as shovm and make 
another view showing pieces assembled 

Problems in Drawing 

1. Make a free-hand drawing of the following: 

(a) Knife switch 
(6) Globe valve 

(c) Faucet 

(d) Link trap 

(e) Lathe dog 

(/) Hexagonal head bolt 
(g) Soldering iron 
(h) Funnel 
(i) Micrometer 
(j) Screw driver , 
(k) Claw hammer 
(0 Cold chisel 
(m) Twist drill 
(n) Reamer 



138 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

H 







One-Inch Ring Gauge — T. S.-Hard & Ground 




One-Inch Plug Gauge — T. S.-Hard & Ground 



From the above sketch draw 1-inch plug 
and ring gauges. Center hole .078" drill 
and if" counter-sink. Stamping Spot 

Questions 

1. What objects are represented ? 

2. Of what material is it made ? 

3. What is the outside diameter of ring gauge ? 

4. What is the inside diameter ? 

5. Make a working drawing of the ring gauge 
and show all lines including hidden lines, with all 
dimensions required. 

6. What is the length of the plug gauge ? 

7. What is the largest diameter of the plug gauge? 

8. Give other diameters if any. 

9. Make a working drawing of the plug gauge 
showing end view and all necessary measurements. 



H* < 




K-*'-i 



TEACHING INTERPRETATION OF BLUE-PRINTS 139 

General Course of Study-Interpretation of Drawing 
First Year 

One month: Short, simple explanations of the purpose of the 
course and the value of it to an apprentice. 

Free-hand isometric (or perspective) sketch of a rectangular 
piece of stock or part used in the shop. Drawn from copy without 
dimensions. Sketch of any other rectangular parts drawn from 
copy without dimensions. Then unit dimensions. 

Free-hand sketch of parts containing curved lines. Use rule for 
measuring only. Blank stock, nuts, bolts, washers, rivets, screw 
threads may be used. 

Four months: Introduce lettering. Rough pencil sketches of 
files, chisels, wrenches, various kinds of hammers, appliances, heat- 
ing furnaces, shape of stock used. Mark names of parts of tools. 

Four months : Drawing of shapes of stock in two views to develop 
the idea of projection (plan and elevation). Also views of stock 
assembled in two parts. 

Three months : Sketches of parts of vessels, or boats, or stock, or 
engines, or motor, or dynamos, or wiring, etc. 

Second Year 

One month : Drawing of simple parts of the machines used in the 
shop as pulley, levers, spindles, gears, cutting heads, etc. 

Three months : Reading of simple blue-prints such as used in the 
shop: dimension of parts, distance between centers, etc. 

One month : Drawing of simple parts of machines used in shop 
involving two views. 

Three months : Applied geometrical construction to practical 
work in the shop such as inscribing hexagons or erecting perpen- 
dicular, bisecting angles, reproducing angles, division of fitch circle 
or other problems. 

One month : Practice in drawing assembled parts more difficult 
than before. 

Three months : Practice in drawing assembled parts introducing 
the idea of simple shapes expanding into irregular surfaces. 

Third Year 
Six months : Apprentice may begin to ink in drawings, trace and 
make a blue-print. Drawing of two views of parts of machines. 
Sectional views. 



140 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Five months : Practice in making drawings from data or sketch of 
parts made in shop and show how installed. 

One month : Practice in making drawing of complete machines, or 
parts of ships or boats to show knowledge of mechanism working 
and construction. 

Course of Study in Interpretation of Blue-Prints for 
Shipfitters — Three- Year Course 
First Year 

One month : Practice in making rough pencil sketches of nuts, 
bolts, rivets, screws, washers, taps. Both isometric and plan and 
elevation views. 

Four months : Practice in making rough pencil drawings of tools 
such as files, chisels, wrenches, various hammers, appliances and 
metals; heating furnace; oxygen acetylene set, etc.; simple plates, 
rivets in section, angle bars, tee bars, Z bars, channel beams in two 
views to develop the idea of projection. To illustrate : rivet spac- 
ing, design in one view should be given to illustrate simple connec- 
tions, that is, a deck to a bulkhead, bounding bars, etc., in water- 
tight, non-watertight and oil tight bulkhead spacing. Various 
types of rivets in plates (in section). 

Four months : Pencil drawings of shapes of T's, I's, and channels. 
Two view drawings of bulkheads, bracket plates, hatches, manhole 
doors, (watertight and non-watertight) gun ports, hammock berth- 
ing, etc. 

Three months: Drawing of blower foundations, scuttle butt 
brackets, tank foundations, knee beam connections at decks and 
floors; hatches and door combings, ammunition stowage, sanitary 
partitions, companionways, access trunks, etc. 

Second Year 

One month : Drawing of simple parts of machines, such as pulleys, 
levers, spindles, gears, cutting heads of planing and scarfing ma- 
chines. This will give considerable practice in the use of drawing 
instruments. 

Three months : Practice in reading blue-prints : distance between 
centers of rivets, interpretation of riveting tables, the drawing of 
floors, intercostals and lines on shell slope of keel, drawings of 
keels (vertical, bilge and docking). 

One month : Drawing of steel forms of shear blades and parts of 
joggling machines (two views). 



TEACHING INTERPRETATION OF BLUE-PRINTS 141 

Three months : Instruction in the location of parts on plans used in 
connection with the drawings of combings, stowage; applied geo- 
metrical construction — erecting perpendiculars, parallels : repro- 
ducing angles and division of pitch circles. Practice in the location 
of the sea openings of a ship — hatches, gratings, port holes, shell 
hoists, etc. 

One month : Practice in drawing assembled frames, engine founda- 
tion, and double bottom sections. 

Three months : Practice in drawing assembled parts of a ship : 
frames, lattice work for torpedo bulkheads, cage masts, etc. Loca- 
tion of longitudinals and lines of shell and decks from offsets. 
Practice in picking bars from book tables. Begin the study of the 
simple shapes of the expansion on irregular surfaces. 

Third Year 

Six months : Drawing of the bridge ammunition hoist, armored 
uptakes and views on turrets: work on compartment rearrange- 
ments. Locating deck scuppers, boat stowage supports, etc. Con- 
siderable practice should be given in "inking in." All drawings 
made in the third or last year should be inked, traced, and a blue- 
print made of at least one to illustrate the principle of blue-printing. 

Five months : Practice in making drawings from data or sketch of 
parts made in the shop. The apprentice should also be taught 
how to mark the drawings so as to show installation of parts. 
Transverse and longitudinal drawings from offsets of inner and 
outer bottoms, bulkheads, location of doors, trunks, etc.: through 
plating and bulkheads, gun port shutters, ship ladders, floors and 
deck frames, splinter bulkheads; foundations, tanks, boilers, en- 
gines, pumps, gun and turret, etc. Drawing of the intersection of 
objects by planes at angles, as for example, chain pipe on deck, 
shell hoist through turret levels, etc. Drawings involving triangu- 
lation to lead up to the drawing of developed shell plating. 

One month : A cross-section drawing through a given frame : a 
longitudinal section drawing of a ship. This is given to test the 
apprentice's knowledge of the ship and the use of related plans. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 

1. Explain why a group of apprentices appear more interested in a poorly 
prepared trade drawing lesson, simply copying, than in an effectively 
prepared lesson in shop English. 



142 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

2. Is mechanical drawing fundamental to all trades? 

3. Explain the difference between the drawing a draftsman performs and 
the drawing a mechanic needs. 

4. If you were teaching drawing to a group of mechanics, would you 
begin by teaching the constructional problems in geometry? 

5. What should a boy between the ages of fourteen and sixteen, in an 
industrial school, know about a drawing? 

6. How would you present the first lesson in shop sketching to a group of 
machinist apprentices? 

7. How would you present a lesson in blue-print reading to a group of 
shipfitters in an evening school? 

8. Is it a good plan to insist in the beginning on finished drawings, in an 
industrial school? Why? 

9. Is it possible for the average industrial school pupil to concentrate his 
attention on technique of drawing, and the principles of drawing 
involved, at the same time? Why? 



LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING 

Value of Art in the Industrial School. W. Largen. National Educa- 
tional Association. Proceedings, 1912. 

(Shows the need of art in all phases of industrial education.) 
* Shop Sketching. Frank E. Mathewson. 

(A discussion of the subject of shop sketching and the method of 
teaching it.) 
** Problems in Mechanical Drauring. Charles A. Bennett. 

(Collection of plates from which suitable material may be 
selected.) 



CHAPTER XIII 

METHODS OF TEACHING SHOP SCIENCE 

Courses in science were introduced into the secondary 
schools of this country about a generation ago, on the 
ground that a training in science was a desirable part of a 
high-school education. The advocates stated that science 
was the foundation stone of modern industrial development, 
and that every pupil with a high-school education should 
have an interest in scientific discovery in order to improve 
and enlarge the methods of scientific reasoning. 

The course of science in a high school consists of biology, 
botany, geology or physical geography, physics and chemis- 
try. The subjects are presented to high-school students 
along the lines the teachers were taught at college, in order 
to develop the scientific attitude of mind. The work con- 
sists of textbook and laboratory practice of a very formal 
character; that is, exercises to study the laws of science for 
their own sake. The teacher assumes that if the pupil 
knows the principles of science, he will be able to discover 
these principles in operation in the ordinary affairs of life 
and shop or industrial processes. 

Experience has shown us that this assumption is not true 
for the average pupil. To illustrate: after the average boy 
has completed a course in physics in the high school, he 
will go out into the industrial world and pass over many 
practical applications in which the principles of physics 
that he has studied would apply; he fails utterly to recog- 
nize in these situations the physical laws he knows only 
in an abstract way. 

A large number of colleges and scientific schools have cor- 



144 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

rected this false notion by establishing two departments of 
science, pure science and applied science. The department 
of pure science trains the student to study the laws of nature 
and see exactly what they are, regardless of the practical use 
of them. The theory underlying such a course is that the 
student can accomplish the best results when he concen- 
trates his attention on the laws of nature without the appli- 
cation. Such a training develops the research scientist, 
who, in order to work efficiently, must concentrate his atten- 
tion on a few facts at a time. The course in applied science 
is to train a student in the application of principles of science 
to industrial operations. The course in pure science has 
failed to do this because it has neglected to lay emphasis on 
the mental activity which we call "application." Psycholo- 
gists have shown that application is a most difficult mental 
process, and needs to be learned just as the original principle 
is learned. 

While the progressive colleges have differentiated between 
pure and applied science courses, the secondary and inter- 
mediate schools have failed to do so. Various attempts 
have been made to meet this deficiency, in part by the intro- 
duction of first-year general science in high schools; but even 
this course has not been sufficiently developed to say it is a 
success. The principal reason why applied science teaching 
has not been more effective is due to the false theory that 
the average student of high-school age can acquire the scien- 
tific attitude of mind, and that the high school should pre- 
pare for college. While the author believes there is a place 
for the traditional courses in biology, chemistry, physics, 
etc., for the boy between the ages of fourteen and eighteen, he 
is also convinced of the absolute necessity of an entirely dif- 
ferent course in the application of principles of science to 
shop and industrial practices for the majority of boys who 
are destined to enter industries. Such a course in science 



TEACHING SHOP SCIENCE 145 

will develop a type of mental attitude which will be valuable 
to the industries of this country. This course in shop or in- 
dustrial science will differ considerably from the applied sci- 
ence course in the college, as the types of mind differ, al- 
though it will bear somewhat the same relation to the regu- 
lar science course as the applied science 1 bears to the pure 
science in the college. 

The industrial workers and tradesmen are recruited from 
the ranks of the motor-minded children with strong phy- 
sique, who are mechanically inclined. The type of mind 
represented by these children is not able to grasp and under- 
stand abstract scientific principles efficiently, or to the ex- 
tent of the abstract-minded child, who has the power to 
grasp and understand abstract principles without a back- 
ground of experience or observation. The mechanically in- 
clined boy has a tendency to personify all chemical and 
physical changes. He is able to reason one step at a time 
only, and usually draws on his imagination in explaining the 
cause of an effect. The habit of personifying action is very 
common among all mechanics, who explain the effervescence 
of acid and a metal as "boiling," corrosion as "eating," etc. 
There is another great distinction between the practical me- 
chanic and the man of scientific mind. The practical me- 
chanic has the strong force of competition acting on him, 
and he develops the habit of performing practical tests, 
"short cuts," or quick methods; that is, he will cast aside a 
method if it does not "work," without studying the reasons 
or analyzing the situation. The man of scientific mind, on 
the other hand, will spend considerable time, without regard 
to expense, in order to test the coherency of the reasoning. 

Therefore a course in shop science should be adapted to 
the type of mind of the boy who is about to enter industry as 

1 See Applied Science for Metal-Workers, and Applied Science for Wood- 
Workers, by W. H. Dooley. 



146 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

a worker and to the needs of the different trades. The 
course should consist of the principles of science underly- 
ing the raw materials, tools, appliances, processes, hygiene, 
etc., of a trade. 

The method of teaching will consist of studying the prin- 
ciples involved in the manufacture of raw materials, action 
of tools and other appliances, the principles involved in the 
processes, etc., with not so much emphasis on the shop oper- 
ations. By discovering the common principles in a great 
variety of shop situations in a trade, a type of mental atti- 
tude is developed which is very different from that which is 
cultivated in merely contemplating a single fact, as in the 
case of pure science. The motor type of mind will find in 
the above course of shop science an opportunity for con- 
tinuous mental enjoyment and the development of indus- 
trial intelligence. The method of teaching shop science is to 
be inductive or the natural method, rather than the deduc- 
tive or regular school method. A suggestive plan for a 
three-year apprentice course is as follows: 

Discuss objectively the materials, tools, etc., with the tool 
or picture or diagram before the class. 

Then have the class write the description with sketches in 
a book. Most pupils lack the ability and knowledge of Eng- 
lish to write a description after the teacher's talk. There- 
fore it is better for the teacher to write the description on the 
board, and have the pupils copy it. This plan will develop 
a technical vocabulary. Teachers should correct the books 
at least once a month. 

The work in science should be covered in three years as 
follows: 

. I. First year: 

a. Properties and uses of materials, etc. 

b. Description and manufacture of hand tools. 

c. General notion of transmission of power. 



TEACHING SHOP SCIENCE 147 

d. General notion of power tools and appliances. 

e. Simple rules for safety. 

II. Second year: 

a. More detailed description of the manufacture of materials 
used. 

b. More detailed description of the parts, uses and manu- 
facture of power tools. 

c. More detailed description of safety devices. 

d. More detailed description of transmission of power. 

HI. Third year: 

a. Review of principles of sciences underlying trade as 
previously described in an unorganized manner. 

b. Study of the principles of testing apparatus. 

c. Study of the strength of materials. 

To illustrate: the shop electrician should receive a training 
in the principles of science underlying the manufacture and 
the operation of the following tools: 

Electrical Department : Machines, Tools, and Materials, used in the 

Trade 
Machines Materials 

Lathes, large and small Sheet brass — i^ to f in thickness 

Drill presses, large and small Sheet copper & to f in thickness 
Shaper Sheet iron ^ to | in _thickness 

Milling machine Rod brass 

Punch press Rod copper 

Motors (shunt) . Rod iron 

Copper wire of various sizes and 
with different types of insula- 
tion 



Motors (series) 
Motors (compound) 
Generators (G.E. type) 
Pipe bending machines 
All types of storage batteries 



148 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



Hand Tools for Electricians 



Torch, gasoline 
Wrench, Stillson, 6" 
Wrench, Stillson, 8" 
Wrench, monkey, 6" 
Wrench, monkey, 12" 
Brace racket, 12" sweep 
Bit (wood), |" 
Bit (wood), \" 
Bit (wood), f" 
Bit (wood), f" 
Bit (wood),!" 

Bit (wood), 1" 

Screw drivers, standard, 6" 

Screw drivers, standard, 8" 

Screw drivers, standard, 12" 
Pair pliers, long nose, 6" 
Pair pliers, side cutting, 8" 
Pair pliers, diamond cutting, 6" 

Chisel, wood, \\" socket firmer 

Chisel, cold, \" X 6" 

Chisel, cold, |" X 8" 

Pair pliers, gas, 10" 

Gauge, f" 

Pair scissors (elect), 5" 

Center punch 



Nail set 

Hammer, ball peen, 16 oz. 

Hammer, claw, 20 oz. 

Drill, small hand, with bit 

Hack saw frame 

Hack saw, 14" frame 

Bit, wood expansion, \" to 1$" 

Reamer burring, \" to \\" 

Saw compass, 12" 

Copper soldering, 3 oz. 

Drill-bit, wood bell-hangers, 
f" X 12" 

Drill, |" X 24" 

Pair calipers, inside joint 6" 

Pair calipers, outside joint 6" 
firm 

Pair dividers, 6" spring 

Ruler, 6 ft. folding (wood) 

Ruler, 2 ft. folding (wood) 

Square combination, 12" pro- 
tractor with head 

Pair pliers, round nose, 6" 

Breast drill 

Torch, alcohol 

Gauge wire — B X S 

Gauge wire, micrometer 

Hammer (tack) 

Tape measure liner, 50 ft. 



Transmission of Power 

A. Power and its application in the Shops. 

a. Sources of power as applied to machines. 

b. Transmission of power from sources to various shops. 

c. Pulleys. 

d. Belting and shafting. 

e. Electric drive. 

/. Gears and gearing. 
g. Rim velocity. 
h. Cutting-speed. 



TEACHING SHOP SCIENCE 



149 



Problems on the principles of science should be expressed 
in terms of actual parts of a machine that the student or 
apprentice has worked on in the shop. For example, the 
belt shifter of an engine lathe would illustrate the principles 
of levers. 

Specimen Lesson Sheet in Science for Machinists, illustrating the 
Law of the Lever 

(1) The resistance of the belt on line W is 30 pounds. If dimen- 
sion A is 24 inches and B 16 feet, how many pounds must a machin- 
ist apply on the end of the 
arm at P in order to shift 
the belt? 

(2) If the resistance of 
a belt is 45 pounds, the 
shifter arm 20 feet long, 
and the shifter rod fastened 
3 feet from the upper end 
of the handle, how much 
pull must be given the end 
of the arm? 

(3) If dimension A is 18 
inches and B 12 feet, how 
many pounds can a man 
exert on the belt-shifter 

rod at W if he pulls 60 pounds on the end of the 
arm P? 

(4) If on a belt shifter arranged like the figure, it 
becomes necessary to move the belt-shifter rod 5 
inches, and A is 2 feet and B 14 feet, how far must 
the end of the arm P move? 

(5) When the end of the arm P moves 14 inches, 
how far from the fulcrum should the belt-shifter 

rod be located in order to impart a motion of 3| inches at W, 
dimension B being 20 feet? 

(6) Make a sketch of a shifter in which the shifter rod is attached 
to the upper end of the arm, and in which the arm swings about a 
point nearer its center. This sketch will be similar to figure, except 
that the fulcrum will be located lower down the handle and the 
shifter rod will be above the fulcrum. 




Examine a belt shifter as 
shown in the figure 



150 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

(7) Suppose that in a shifter arranged like your sketch, the belt 
is to move 4 inches, and the distance from the upper end of the 
lever to the bolt about which it swings is 18 inches. How far is it 
from the fulcrum bolt to the lower end of the handle, if the end of 
the handle is restricted to a movement of 18 inches? 

(8) In a shifter as shown by your sketch, does the handle have to 
be moved in the same or in the opposite direction from that in 
which the belt is to move? 

(9) If in problem 8, a force of 80 pounds is necessary at the shifter 
in order to move the belt, what force must the machinist use on the 
lower end of the handle? 

The meaning of "horse-power," "kilowatt," "mechanical 
efficiency," and other mechanical terms of common use 
should be made clear to all. 

Miscellaneous Tools used in Steam Plant 

Riveting hammers Pumps 

Electrical pyrometer for anneal- Condensers 

ing furnaces Coal-handling equipment 

Cranes overhead — traveling Ash-handling plant 

Elevators, hydraulic Feed water heaters 

Annealing furnace Sun printing frame 

Heating systems Calculating machine 

Dynamos Adding machine 

Air compressors Blue-print machine 
Boilers and stokers 

Instrument Room, Testing Supplies, etc. 

Oil-testing outfit Oil-hydrometer set 

Gauge test pump Specific gravity hydrometer set 
Vacuum pump and mercurial Traction dynamometer 

scales Hydraulic gauge tester 

Sensitive balance and cabinet Tensile testing machine 

Angle viscometer Oil-testing friction 

Measuring Instruments in use in the Shops 

1. The watch 

2. The yard stick — 2 foot rule, steel tape 

3. Calipers (ordinary and micrometer) 



TEACHING SHOP SCIENCE 151 

4. Protractors 

5. Scales 

6. Thermometers 
< 7. Gas meters 

8. Water meters 

9. Electric meters 

10. Machines for testing materials 

Specific gravity should receive considerable attention; so should 
the mechanism of the more common types of meters. Practice in 
reading micrometers, calipers, and gas, water, and electric meters. 

Safety in industry 

(1) Necessity for guarding against industrial accidents. 

(2) Safety devices and their uses. 

(3) The human element in accidents. 

(a) Ignorance of danger. 

(b) A preoccupied mind. 

(c) Thoughtlessness. 

(d) Carelessness. 

(e) Recklessness. 
(J) Showing off. 

(g) Lowered vitality, as in sickness. 

(k) Excitement. 

(i) Fooling and playing pranks. 

1. The safety movement. 

A statement of the industrial accident problem giving sta- 
tistics of accidents in the United States as a whole, for groups 
of industries and in particular plants. Include, if possible, 
statistics of accidents in shop, with specific classification. 
Indicate from data that the majority of accidents are not due 
to machinery, or lack of safeguards, but rather to carelessness, 
or indifference on the part of the workmen. Use of slides. 

2. How plants have organized for safety. 

Give typical organizations for safety in industrial plants 
and cite the reduction in accidents resulting through their op- 
eration. Cover the proposed organization for the shop. The 
duties of Workmen's Committees should be covered in detail. 

3. Safe and unsafe practices. 

Select from the files of the medical department, cases of 



152 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

accidents resulting clearly from carelessness on the part of 
the workmen. Unsafe practices. Indicate how the accident 
might have been avoided. 

4. Good housekeeping and the tripping hazard. 

Indicate the relation of good housekeeping to the accident 
hazard, i.e., keeping the shop well cleaned up and orderly ar- 
ranged, safe piling of material, racks and receptacles for tools, 
stock, etc., the tripping hazard, clear aisles and passageways, 
etc. 

5. The construction of safeguards. 

Exhibit the racks showing construction of common guards 
for belts, gears, etc. Use slides of typical installations, indi- 
cating the materials used, etc., etc. 

6. Stairways, floor openings, platforms, scaffolds and ladders. 

Standard hand rails for stairs, floor openings, etc.; proper 
angle for stairs, ladders, etc. ; slides of unsafe ladders found in 
use; standards for construction of scaffolds. 

7. Power transmission equipment. 

Indicate in detail the standard requirements for guarding 
all main shafting, jack shafting and counter shafting. Guards 
for vertical and horizontal belts, shafting, etc.; safety cou- 
plings, collars and set screws; remote controls. 

8. Wood-working safeguards. 

Slides on guards for circular, swing and band saws; jointers; 
planers; shapers. Emphasize the need for using such guards 
as are provided. 

9. Machine-shop hazards. 

Slides on guards for drill presses, lathes, punch presses, 
boring mills, etc. 

10. Safety in foundries. 

Slides on safe foundry ladles, guards for sand mixers, tum- 
blers; foundrymen's shoes, leggings, goggles, hand leathers, 
etc. 

11. Crane practice. 

Walks, railing and platforms; trolley guards, safety limit 
stops, limit switches, etc. 

12. Grinding-wheel safeguards. 

Slides on proper mounting of wheels; adjustment of rest; 
design of guard for wheel; eye shield, etc. 

13. Eye protection. 



TEACHING SHOP SCIENCE 153 

Slides and exhibit of goggles for chippers and grinders and 
colored glasses for electric welders, etc. Indicate the dangers 
of picking things out of each other's eyes ; show the reduction 
in eye injuries where men have used goggles. 

14. Electrical hazards. 

Is low tension apparatus dangerous? Slides on safety 
switches, use of rubber gloves, sleeves, etc. 

15. First aid to the injured. 

Demonstrate the prone pressure method of artificial respi- 
ration for electric shock, drowning, etc. Have members of 
class try it on each other. If possible, have physician from 
medical department present. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 

1. Pattern-makers frequently determine the weight of a casting from a 
pattern. This depends upon the principle of specific gravity. When 
would you teach the pattern-maker the theory of specific gravity? Why ? 

2. Explain why an apprentice steam engineer would in the beginning 
rather wheel coal than calculate the B.T.U. power of the coal. 

3. When should a plumbing apprentice receive the chemical composition 
of "raw acid," "killed acid"? 

4. When should wood-workers receive the knowledge of the growth of 
trees so as to be able to tell the defects in the wood? 

5. When would you teach the machinist the theory of the micrometer? 

6. An instructor who was explaining the use of a speedometer for the 
first time also included a detailed description of the construction of 
the instrument. Was this good teaching in an industrial school? 

7. If you were an instructor of applied physics in an industrial school and 
desired to teach the subject of levers to a group of machinists, how 
would you start? Why? 

8. During the first few months of a course in shop science, would you 
place more emphasis on the recent experiences of the pupil or the sub- 
ject in the book or laboratory? Why? 

9. What is the principle of science involved in getting horse-power of a 
given engine from an indicator card? 

10. How would you present the subject of horse-power to a group of fire- 
men in an evening trade class? 

11. What principle of science is involved in teaching the cutting-speed for 
different metals? 

12. Give the outline of a lesson showing how you would present to a class 
of pattern-makers in an evening school the subject of getting weights 
of casting from pattern by table of trade numbers? 



154 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

13. Should a pupil in a plumbing department wipe joints or learn the 
composition of solder first? Why? 

14. Ask a number of mechanics, what they first acquired, the practice or 
the theory. 

15. Explain why it is not difficult to hold the attention of all boys for at 
least a while on a working model of an automobile. 

16. Explain why most mechanics find it difficult to discuss problems in 
mechanics in the abstract. 

17. What objection is there to a teacher of related trade knowledge teach- 
ing shop practice? 

18. Why is it difficult for the teacher to receive real concentration on the 
theoretical principles of the mechanics of a tool from the average 
industrial school pupil? 

LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING 

* Applied Science. A. H. Morrison, National Education Association. 

Proceedings, 1914. 

(Emphasizes the importance of the applications of the principles 
of science.) 
** Industrial Hygiene and Vocational Education. National Education 

Association. Proceedings, 1914. 
** The Natural Sciences. George R. Twiss. Principles of Secondary Edu- 
cation. Edited by Paul Munroe. 

(The aim and value of the natural sciences.) 

* The Teaching of Physics. C. R. Mann. 

(Methods of teaching science in secondary schools.) 
Science Teaching as seen from the Outside. E. L. Thorndike. Bulletin 
34. New York State Department of Education. 
(Need of more practical science teaching.) 

* How It Works. Archibald Williams. 

(A description of the industrial application of steam, electricity, 
optics, hydraulics, light, etc., in very simple language.) 
** The Romance of Modern Manufacture. Charles R. Gibson. 

(A popular account of various mechanical and chemical in- 
dustries.) 



CHAPTER XIV 

INDUSTRIAL OR SHOP MATHEMATICS 

One of the most difficult subjects to teach effectively to 
boys is vocational mathematics. This may be due to the 
fact that many principles of mathematics are very abstract, 
and have never come within the experience or observation 
of the child. The laws of mental development state that a 
child must be led gradually into an abstract subject. There- 
fore the principles of mathematics should be vitally and per- 
sistently connected with the pupil's experience in a shop. 
When this idea is instilled into the mind of the pupil, he will 
go about his work with greater interest and less coaxing. 

The first part of each lesson should be devoted to a discus- 
sion of the part of the trade that requires the principle of 
mathematics. This offers an incentive for the pupil to study 
the subject. As far as possible have the pupil give practical 
proofs. For example, in teaching the relation between the 
diameter of a pulley, and the distance around it, ask the 
pupil to draw a chalk line on the floor and mark the rim of 
the pulley with a chalk mark, then roll the pulley along the 
chalk line until the pulley has made one complete revolu- 
tion as indicated by the chalk mark on the rim. The di- 
ameter of the pulley is obtained by measuring across the 
pulley. Divide the distance around the pulley by the 
diameter and show the relation. 

In all parts of vocational mathematics emphasis should be 
laid on the objective teaching. Models should be con- 
structed if necessary. To illustrate; in teaching the relation 
between the number of teeth and the speeds of gears, a rack 
may be constructed to hold a number of gears. Begin with 



156 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

two gears, 24 teeth and 48 teeth. Mark a check line on a 
tooth of the small gear, and notice the number of teeth or 
part of revolution the large gear turns, while the small one 
makes one complete revolution. The pupil will see that 
the small gear makes more revolutions than the large one. 
When another gear is placed in the rack between them acting 
as an idler, similar reasoning will show that the middle gear 
causes the third gear to have the same direction as the first. 

The Necessity of Individual Instruction in Apprentice 
and Vocational Classes 

Students in higher vocational classes are obliged to meet 
certain minimum requirements before they are allowed to 
pursue a vocational course. As a result it is possible to 
work with a class as a whole in teaching related trade tech- 
nical knowledge. 

A study of the record cards of the apprentices in the differ- 
ent trades will show that the apprentices vary greatly in 
their previous educational training: some have been in the 
country a few years and have a very scant knowledge of the 
English language; that is, they speak and write English im- 
perfectly. Most of the apprentices come from the sixth and 
seventh grade, some from the eighth grade, and a few from 
the high school. It is clear that with such a wide range of 
grading it is impossible to do much class teaching. Any 
attempt to grade apprentices into classes according to their 
educational attainments would interfere with the shop or- 
ganization and develop adininistrative difficulties. There- 
fore the most effective method of teaching is by groups and 
individuals. Graded lesson sheets must be prepared each 
day and given to the apprentices according to their ability. 
The apprentices from the upper grades and the high school 
will not require as much individual instruction as the appren- 
tices from the lower grades. 



TEACHING SHOP MATHEMATICS 



157 



One of the most effective methods of carrying on indi- 
vidual work is to have an envelope for each pupil. As fast 
as he finishes a lesson sheet he should hand it to the teacher 
for correction. The instructor goes over the sheet in detail 
with the pupil, explaining the incorrect problems. Correc- 
tions may be written on the papers and then filed away if 
satisfactory to the teacher. In this way the pupils retain 
their own corrected papers, and can refer to them at any 
time. Marks may be recorded on the back of the envelope 
that is used to hold the corrected papers as shown below. 



>> 

9 

a 
o 

g 


Name 


Trade 


Class 


JO 

'J? 

3 






1 
m 






1 

•-9 







Method of Teaching 

The most effective system of teaching shop mathematics 
to apprentices is the individual plan; that is, having a series 
of sheets each one containing a type of problem used in that 
trade. The first problem should be solved on the paper in 



158 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

vay simple language followed by four or five drill prob- 
lems. In this way it is possible to give each apprentice 
graded lessons. 

Sample of a graded lesson in board measure for joiners 

A foot in board measure, or a " board foot," means a piece of 
lumber having an area of 1 square foot on its flat surface and a 
thickness of 1 inch or less. The word " foot " is generally used 
instead of " board foot," as it is shorter. For example : " Four feet 
of lumber " means four board feet of lumber. Fig. 1 shows a board 
containing four board feet. 





Fig. 1 Fig. 2 

The rule for finding the number of board feet in a piece of lumber 
is as follows: Multiply the number of square feet in its flat surface 
by the number of inches in thickness, counting any thickness less 
than i inch as an inch. 

Suppose we wish to find the number of board feet in a piece of 

lumber 1 inch thick, 8 inches wide, and 15 feet long, then we will 

have: 

8X15X1 M . 

— = 10 feet Ans. 

Lumber. The term " lumber " is generally applied to pieces not 
more than 4 inches thick. 

Timber. The term " timber " is applied to pieces more than 
4 inches thick. 

Board and Plank. Any piece of lumber under 1| inches thick is 
usually called a " board "; and a piece from 1| inches to 4 inches 
thick is called a " plank." 

Rough Stock. The term " rough stock " means lumber having 
its dimensions a little larger than is actually required, to allow for 
planing, truing up, etc. 

Dressed. The term " dressed " has much the same meaning as 
"planed." 



TEACHING SHOP MATHEMATICS 159 

Surfaced. The term "surfaced" is usually applied to boards or 
planks that are planed on one or both sides. 

Jointed. The term " jointed " has reference to lumber planed on 
its edges. It is also used to designate pieces that are made straight 
on the edges. 

Allowance for dressing. If lumber is dressed it loses in size the 
amount taken off in shavings. Usually for stock 1| inches or more 
in thickness the loss is about | inch on each surface planed. Hence 
a piece 8 inches wide and 2 inches thick when rough, becomes 7f 
inches wide and If inches thick when dressed, if planed on all four 
surfaces. 

Li estimating board feet all lumber one inch in thickness or less 
should be considered 1 inch thick. Rough lumber or timber is esti- 
mated in \ and \ inch thickness over the even inch. Examples : 
If" at 1£", 2|" at 2§", 2f" at 3" and 3f" at 4". Intermediate 
thicknesses would be estimated at the next larger thickness. For 
example: \\" would be estimated at II", If" at \\" > and If" at 
If", and If" at 2. The above rules also apply to all dressed lumber. 

Fig. 2 shows the end of a piece of timber which is 65 inches thick, 
8 inches wide, and 18 feet long. How many board feet does it con- 
tain? Applying the rule we will have: 

8 X 18 X 6| „ Q . ' ' 

= 78 feet. Ans. 

12 

Standard lengths of lumber in most sections are 10, 12, 14, 16, 
18 feet, etc. If cut to a special length it always costs more. 

The following simple table is very useful for calculating board 
measure (feet long), for lumber 1 inch or less in thickness: 

Pieces 3" wide contain f as many feet as they are feet long. 

tt Ait tt a 1 tt «« tt a tt ft . ft tt 

tt ftfr tt tt 1 tt tt tt a tt tt tt tt 

tt s\ff tt tt 3 tt tt tt «< ft ft tt ft 

" 12" " " as many feet as they are feet long. 

Examples for Drill 

1. How many board feet in a piece of lumber I inch thick, 8 
inches wide and 12 feet long? 

2. How many feet in a piece of timber 65 inches thick by 10^ 
inches wide by 16 feet long? 



160 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

3. Find the number of board feet in the following 8 pieces. 

1" X 3" X 16 ft. 2" X 9" X 16 ft. 

§" X 4" X 12 ft. 6" X 9" X 14 ft. 

If" X 3" X 16 ft. 7" X 12" X 20 ft. 

If X 4" X 12 ft. 9" X 12" X 20 ft. 

4. How many board feet in 8 pieces of timber each 6" X 6" X 13 
• feet? 

5. Six boards have the following dimensions : 

1" X 8" X 16 ft. I" X i\ n X 16 ft. 

if" X 6" X 16 ft. f " X <S\" X 16 ft. 

1" X 8|" X 16 ft. W X 9" X 16 ft. 

How many board feet are there in the lot? (Add the widths 
together first, then apply the rule.) 

6. How many board feet in a plank If inches thick, 11§ wide, 
and 14 £ inches long (nearest foot)? 

7. How many board feet of stock are required to build a plat- 
form 8 feet 6 inches square if the stock is 1^ inches thick and 
we allow 3 board feet for waste due to squaring up the ends 
of the boards? 

The width of common rough timber or lumber runs in \ inch 

sizes; as, §\, 7, 1\, 8, 8|, 9, etc. For widths running in fractions 

less than | inch use the next highest \ inch size. For example, a 

board §\ inches wide would be called 6^ inches and one 6| inches 

wide would be called 7 inches wide. 

, 1. A piece of rough stock (" rough stock " means lumber having 

its dimensions a little larger than is actually required to allow 

for planing, trueing up, etc.) is f inch thick, f inch wide, and 

16 feet long. How many board feet does it contain? 

2. How many board feet in a piece of rough stock 18 feet long, 
7£ inches wide, and 1\ inches thick? 

3. A piece of lumber is 10 inches wide at one end and 12 inches 
at the other and is 1£ inches thick and 13| feet long. How 
many board feet does it contain? 

Lesson Sheet on Mathematics for House Carpenter 

Fig. 1 shows a piece of matched flooring. When estimating 
flooring, ceiling, sheathing, or other lumber that is matched (that 
is, having a tongue and groove joint as shown in the figure) enough 




TEACHING SHOP MATHEMATICS 161 

stock must be added to make up for the amount cut away from the 
width in matching. This amount varies from § inch to | inch on 
each board according to its size. A little flooring is always wasted 
in squaring the ends, 
cutting up, etc., and 
to offset this a few 
feet are usually added 
to the total estimate. 
For flooring, sheath- 
ing, etc., from about 
2| inches to 5| inches 
in width, the amount 
allowed or added for 
matching is generally Fig. 1 

one fourth. For ex- 
ample, if a common floor to be laid with matched boards is 12 feet 
square, the amount of flooring required is 144 feet plus \ of 144 or 
36 feet making in all 180 feet. If the floor to be laid is of pieces 
1\ inches wide, the amount usually allowed for matching is one 
third or in the above case we would add \ of 144, or 48 feet. 

1. Estimate how much f-inch matched flooring 3 inches wide 
will be required to lay a floor 16 feet by 18 feet. Allow one 
fourth more for matching and add 3 per cent for squaring the 
ends. Get answer to nearest foot. 

2. How much hard-pine matched flooring f inch thick and 
1| inches wide will be required for a floor 13 feet 6 inches by 
14 feet 10 inches. Allow for matching and add 4 per cent for 
waste. Get answer to nearest foot. 

3. An office floor is 10 feet 6 inches wide at one end, 9 feet 6 
inches wide at the other, and 11 feet 7 inches long. If it is 
laid with hard-maple matched flooring 1 inch thick and 1£ 
inches wide, what will the lumber cost at $60.00 per M? 
Add 4 square feet for waster. 

Specimen Lesson Sheets: Gearing 
Go to the shop and select two 48-tooth gears. Clamp them in 
the gear rack so that they will work together as shown in Fig. 1. 
Make a chalk mark on the tooth of each gear which just shows 
above the top of the rack. Turn the gear A one turn in a direction 
the same as the hands of a clock until the chalk mark comes back 
to the starting point. 



162 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



1. How many teeth on gear B passed the top of the rack while 
gear A turned once? Arts. 

2. How many turns or parts of turns did gear B make when gear 
A turned around once? Ans. 

3. When you turned gear A in the direction of the hands of a 
clock did gear B turn in the same or opposite direction? Ans. 

When a gear turns in the same direction as the hands of a clock 
it is said to turn right-handed. When a gear turns in the oppo- 
site direction to the hands of a clock it is said to turn left-handed. 



CHALK 
MARK 



CHALK MARK 




Fig. 1 

When two gears run together the one that is nearest the source of 
power is called the driver and the other gear is called the follower. 
In some trains of gears used in lathes we have several drivers and 
several followers. 

Lesson Sheet in Shop Mathematics: Gearing l 
Place a 96- and 48-tooth gear in the rack so that they will run 
together as shown in Fig. 1. Make a chalk mark on the 96-tooth 



CHALK 
MARK 



CHALK 

MARK 




Fig. 1 

gear at the top line of the rack and a similar mark on the 48-tooth 
gear. Turn the 48-tooth gear one turn right-handed. 



1 For more detailed problems, see Vocational Mathematics, by W. H. 
Dooley. 



TEACHING SHOP MATHEMATICS 163 

1. How many teeth passed the top of the rack on the 96-tooth 
gear? Arts. 

2. How many turns or parts of turns did the 96-tooth gear make? 

Ans. 

3. In what direction did the 96-tooth gear turn? Ans. 

4. "What is the ratio of the gearing in this case? Ans. 

5. What would be the ratio of the gearing if we took out the 
48-tooth gear and put in a 32- tooth gear? Ans. 

6. If we turn the 96-tooth gear 4 times, how many turns will the 
32-tooth gear make? Ans. 

7. How many turns would the 96-tooth gear make if we gave 
the 32-tooth gear 7§ turns? Ans. 

Lesson Sheets on Drill Problems on Gearing 

1. A 168-tooth gear drives a 28-tooth gear. What is the ratio 
of the gearing? Ans. 

2. What would be the ratio of the gearing if the 28-tooth gear 
was the driver? Ans. 

3. If the 28-tooth gear is making 48 r.p.m., how many r.p.m. is 
the 168-tooth gear making? (See Note below.) Ans. 

4. How would we change the gearing to make the 28-tooth gear 
turn in the same direction as the 168-tooth gear? Ans. 

5. Two gears running together have a speed ratio of 7 to 1. If 
the smaller turns 14 times, how many times will the larger 
turn? Ans. 

6. In the last problem how do you know that the answer is 
14 -J- 7 instead of 14 X 7? Ans. 

7. A 144-tooth gear makes one complete turn. How many 
turns will a 32-tooth gear make working with it? Ans. 

8. If in the last problem the 32-tooth gear turned once, how 
many turns will the 144-tooth gear make? Ans. 

Note: The letters "r.p.m." mean "revolutions per minute." This ab- 
breviation will be used hereafter in the course. 

Lesson Sheet in Shop Mathematics 
Suppose we have two shafts, A and B, as shown in Fig. 1, and 
that we want to connect these shafts by gears so that the shaft A 
will make one revolution while the shaft B makes two. In order to 
do this we must place a gear on shaft A having two times the num- 
ber of teeth as the gear on shaft B. If we put a gear on A having 



164 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 




96 teeth, the gear on B will then have 48 teeth, or just one half 
as many, and each time the gear on A turns around once the 

gear on B will turn twice; 
that is, the 96 teeth on 
gear A will have to turn 
gear B twice in order to 
mesh with 96 teeth on B. 
The relation or ratio of 
the speed of B to the 
speed of A is 2 to 1. This 
is called the ratio of the 
Fi g> i gearing. We can now 

write the ratios between the 
speeds and the number of teeth in the form of a proportion, thus : 

96 : 48 : : 2 : 1 

or in words, the number of teeth on gear A is to the number oi 
teeth on gear B as the speed of B is to the speed of A. 

1. A 48-tooth gear drives a 120-tooth gear. What is the ratio 
of their speeds? Ans. 

2. Two shafts are connected by gears, one turns 55 times a 
minute and the other makes 1 1 turns a minute. If the smaller 
gear has 32 teeth how many teeth has the larger gear? Ans. 

Lesson Sheet on Angular Measurements 
One of the most difficult subjects to teach a practical mechanic 
is the relation of the chord and the angle. This subject may be 
presented in a very practical way as follows : 

1. Lay off the following angle with a two-foot rule by measuring 
the chord: 



Sketch 


Angle in 


Chord in 


Angle in 


Chord in 


degrees 


inches 


degrees 


inches 


% 3 "" ' ~ 


5 
10 


17 /32 
1V32 


50 
55 


5146 




5 17 /32 


\\ ttill 


15 


1%6 


60 


6 


%f\ so* jfejy 


20 


2%2 


65 


6 7 /l6 


\S~ §J 


25 


2 19 /32 


70 


6% 


\\ FJy 


30 


3%2 


75 


7%B 


V?j| /^Jf 


35 


3 19 /32 


80 


723/ 32 


vl^W 


40 


4%2 


85 


8%2 


%0# 


45 


4 19 /32 


90 


8V 2 



TEACHING SHOP MATHEMATICS 

2. Lay off the following angles with a steel square: 



165 



Sketch 


Angle in 


Distance in 


Angle in 


Distance in 




degrees 


inches 


degrees 


inches 


n 


~^x/ 


5 


1^6 


33° 42' 


8 




10 


2%2 


(% Pitch) 


. . 




Y' 


15 

18° 25' 
(Yq Pitch- 


3 7 /32 

4 


35 
40 


8*%s 


U - 


i i 34 s i 7 a 9 loli ah^sArTkabako] 


10He 




: / 








roof) 


. . 


45 


12 




20 


4% 


(% Pitch) 




t>\ 


22V 2 


4% 


50 


14 5 /i 6 


2 
t 


25 


5 19 /32 


53° 7' 


16 


: 


b 

■s 


26° 33' 


6 


(% Pitch) 


. . 




Layoff— aB = 12" 
Lay off — ac= distance 


04 Pitch) 
30 


6i%e 


55 
60 


17% 

20 25 / 3 2 



Lesson Sheet on Cost 

In connection with mathematics, it is possible to teach the mean- 
ing of a great many industrial terms, such as "day rate," " pre- 
mium rate," "earned rate," "overtime rate," etc. These terms 
may be aroused by such questions as : 

What is meant by hourly or day rate? 

What is meant by earned rate? 

When are you paid overtime? 

Do you get premium when working overtime? 

How does coming in late in the morning affect your overtime? 

Does the company pay overtime for work done during the noon 
hour? 

Does overtime increase the cost of a job? 

Of what advantage is overtime to the company? 

What is piece work? 

What is meant by paid on account? 

What do you mean by time and one-half? 

What is a time slip? 

What information should a workman put on his time slip, before 
turning slip in to the time clerk? 

What is done with the time slip after the workman turns it in? 



^c 



lb ^ ^ 

»S 1 



OD 



9 

c ■ 

-5 






Is 
-aS 

I' 






2 a 






ii 

S3 






a 
■ = 






■ - 






r. - 
Z - 






"3 

- ■ 

1 ■ 






9 

J" 

B ■ 






- ■ 










i- 



■ 
■ 

s 

b 
S 

c 

•*» 

E 
O 




i 

D 

"5 




l 

o 
5 








■ 
■ 

a 

I 








S 

,2 




h 

B 

s 




d 

i 

Q 


'. '. "~ 

: 

: : -~ 



TEACHING SHOP MATHEMATICS 167 

What is done with the time slip after the pay roll is made up? 

Is the time slip ever destroyed? 

Is there harm in putting more time on the time slip than the 
actual hours worked on the job? 

What effect will this have on the cost of the job? 

What are the things that enter into the cost of a job? 

A cost sheet should be given to the pupil, and practice given in 
working out costs. The overhead charge may be considered as a 
certain per cent of the labor, as 30 per cent for sheet-metal trades. 

Related Tkade Knowledge of a Scale 

Give each student or apprentice a scale, and ask him to examine 
it very carefully. Then lead the pupil by asking the following 
simple one-step questions: 

What markings do you find on the scale? 

Into how many parts is the inch divided on your scale? 

What is the smallest division of an inch that you have seen on 
any scale? 

How many of these divisions does it take to make an inch? 

How many quarter inches in one inch? 

Write a quarter of an inch fractionally. 

Write a quarter of an inch, using decimals. 

How many quarters in two inches? 

Draw four lines with the scale. 

Divide the first line into inches. 

Divide the second line into one half inches. 

Divide the third line into one fourth inches. 

Divide the fourth line into one eighth inches. 

Write in decimals |", 1", §", A", &", f", &", &", ft". 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 

1. Is the study of mathematics industrially fundamental to all trades? 

2. Explain why the average teacher in the college section in mathematics 
is able to hold interest better than the same teacher in an industrial 
school. 

S. Explain why a group of machinists are anxious to know how to change 
a common fraction to a decimal fraction. 

4. Why will an apprentice machinist, who is anxious (ambitious) to be- 
come a foreman, acquire shop mathematics faster than a skilled me- 
chanic, who is satisfied with his present rating? 



108 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

5. A boy enters a trade school from the grammar school. He has left 
school because he r-annot understand fractions. How would you 
undertake to teach him fractions? 

6. A grammar school teacher asked every pupil who failed in a simple 

pie in fractions to do ten additional ones. Would this be a good 
practice in an industrial school? Why? 

7. Give five practical mathematical problems in the following trades; 
Machinist, plumbing, steam engineering, electrical trades, pattern 
making, and sheet metal work. 

8. A boiler-maker determines the inside circumference of a boiler by 
multiplying the inside diameter by 3 and allowing one additional inch 
in every- seven inches in the diameter. Why is this method more 
simple than multiplying the diameter by 3* ? 

9. An instructor in shop mathematics asked an apprentice to multiply 
84 by 15j by 3. The pupil in the pattern making shop took very little 
interest in this problem. Could the interest be aroused by making 
the problem concrete? 

10. When would you teach the slide rule to an electrical apprentice? 

11. How would you teach trigonometry to a group of mechanics in an 
evening class? 

12. If you were teaching a group of motor-minded boys, 14 to 16 years of 
age, how would you make your instruction concrete? 

13. (jive the principles of mathematics involved in teaching how to figure 

- on a screw cutting lathe. 

14. What principle of mathematics is involved in teaching how to obtain 
an offset for taper turning? 

1 .3 Bow would you explain the principle of shrink rule to a group of pat- 
tern making apprentices? 

10. Give the outline of a lesson in teaching the principle involved in 
locating six equidistant holes on a circle, to a group of pupils in a ma- 
chine shop course in a day industrial school. 

17. Give the outline of a lesson for teaching the principle of cutting 
rafter angles by use of a square to a group of house carpenters in an 
evening school. 

18. Give the outline of a lesson for teaching the slide rule to a group of 
draftsmen in an evening class. 

19. I low would you explain the use of logarithms to a class of advanced 
pupils in a machinist's course in a day industrial school? 

20. Give a lesson plan showing how to present the use of a formula to a 
group of young electrical apprentices. 

21. Pupils in an all day industrial school are often obliged to keep a time 
card, calculate the cost of material and labor, and the price that 
should be charged for output. What principles of mathematics may 
be taught in this way? 



TEACHING SHOP MATHEMATICS 169 



LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING 

* The Teaching of Elementary Mathematics. D. E. Smith. 

(Methods of teaching elementary mathematics. One of the best 
books.) 
** A Short Account of the History of Mathematics. M. R. Ball. 

(A concise account of the development of mathematics.) 

* "Practical Mathematics." W. H. Dooley. Mathematics Teacher, 

June, 1918. 

(A discussion of some of the best methods used in trade classes.) 
** An Elementary Treatise on Graphs. George A. Gibson. 

(Presents the subject in a connected form simple enough in the 
early stages for the beginner.) 



CHAPTER XV 

METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 

Every one has two duties to perform outside of his work 
— the duties he owes to society : one is to act as head of a 
family, and the other is to perform the duties of citizenship. 
As head of a family he should have a training that will give 
him the intelligence to be a good provider and to know how 
to enjoy the companionship of his family and his friends, and 
also to secure honest enjoyment out of life. 

Every person in this country has more or less to do with 
the government. This is the only country in the world that 
has given to every male citizen of ordinary intelligence the 
right to vote and to decide how our government shall be 
conducted. Therefore it is important that general intelli- 
gence of the working classes should remain fairly high. In 
order to have this general intelligence, it is necessary to 
continue general education in English, civics, and social 
sciences until the pupil reaches the threshold of manhood. 
This will conserve what he already knows and will increase 
his general knowledge. 

English is the most important academic subject in the 
course of study in the day industrial school. Every one 
must be able to speak and write about the things he is doing, 
and to be able to make his desires and appreciations known. 
The teacher should begin by showing the value of English. 
The necessary English includes ordinary letter-writing, pen- 
manship, spelling of common words, and oral English about 
his work and every-day life. The desirable English — how 
to write — includes reports of work done in the school shops, 
condition of worker and work, the human phase of various 



TEACHING ENGLISH 171 

occupations, enlarged vocational vocabulary, that one may 
read technical and trade literature. Cultural English de- 
velops a love of reading, an appreciation of good books, re- 
porting, descriptions, etc. The intellectual and emotional 
side of the student is brought out; also any literary ability. 
An effective course in English in an industrial school 
should tend to develop the following: 

1. Ability to express easily and freely oral and written English. 

2. A knowledge of the structure and form of the language. 
8. A real desire to read. 

4. An appreciation of good literature. 

5. A knowledge of the best authors. 

In teaching English, begin with reports of the shop-work, 
followed by correspondence, ordering supplies, and then 
specifications of the projects that the pupils are working on. 
Then show the need of being able to write about the condi- 
tion of the workers, followed by a study of good books. 

In order to develop a special fondness for books, we must 
show the pupil an incentive, that the world depends on 
books for knowledge and happiness. Assign to the pupils 
readings in books to bring out the good points, after you 
have read selections to them. 

Lesson Sheet on Spelling 

List of Machine-Shop Words 

Machines Machines 

Emery wheels Valve reseating machine 

Emery grinders Screw jacks 

Tool grinders Hydraulic jacks 

Traveling cranes Jib cranes 

Testing plant Blanking dies 

Standard plug and ring gauges Erecting plates and blocks 

Dies and taps machine Jigs 

Surface plates Pneumatic hoists 

Taper reamers Electric grinders 



172 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



Machines 
Pneumatic drills 
Pneumatic corner drills 
Die-sinker mill 
Saw blade, grinder 
Milling planer 
Universal milling machine 
Milling machine 
Plain milling machine 
Vertical milling machine 
Reamer and cutter grinder 
Turbine blade cutting machine 
Saw table 
Circular saw 
Radial drill press 
Drill press 
Sensitive drill press 
Multiple drill press 
Drilling and boring machine 
Twist drill grinder 
Power punch press 
Planer 

Crank slotter 
Electric hand drills 
Torches 

Vertical boring mill 
Horizontal boring mill 
Engine lathe 
Fox lathe 
Gap lathe 

Universal grinder (lathe type) 
Speed lathe 
Universal tool grinder 



Machines 
Turret lathe 

Triple-headed bolt machine 
Double-headed bolt machine 
Bolt cutting machine 
Fox monitor lathe 
Automatic screw machine 
Semi-automatic screw machine 
Monitor lathe 
Cutting-off machine 
Screw slotter 
Tube cutter 
Pipe threading machine 
Shaper 

Double-headed shaper 
Draw shaper 
Universal key seater 
Surface grinder 
Spur gear cutter 
Gear and worm wheel cutter 
Bevel-gear cutter 
Open-side planner 
Turret rack cutting 
Band saw 

Gorton disc grinders 
Buffing machine 
Power hack saw 
Magnetic metal separator 
Belt-lacing machine 
Hydraulic press 
Belt-scraping machine 
Arbor press 



Hand tools 
Peen hammer 
Chisels 
Calipers 
Micrometer 
Gauges 



Materials 
Emery cloth, etc. 
Tool steel 
Soft steel 
Wrought iron 
High speed steel 



TEACHING ENGLISH 173 

Hand Tools Materials 

Scales Cast-iron 

Files Bronze 

Scraper Babbitt metal 

Lead hammer Lubricating oils 

Drills and reamers Belting (leather) 

Surface gauge Waste (cotton) 
Surface plate 
Center punch 
Scribe 



The desirable English should include practice in the use of 
four or five types of letters : letters to a parent or other rela- 
tive, letter applying for a position, an order or requisition 
for supplies, letter to a superior official, letter to a public 
official, letter to a newspaper official, correspondence be- 
tween two departments of the same corporation, etc. The 
pupil should also make a study of the use of short stories, 
and the technical literature of his trade. 

Teachers should have the pupils acquire the "library 
habit." An effort should be made by the instructor to find 
the list of technical books on each trade. A list may with 
profit be placed on a bulletin. Later an interest in general 
reading may be acquired by the pupil. 

A boy is least fitted to choose the books which are desir- 
able for him to read. His interests at various ages decidedly 
influence his reading. A boy's library should supplement 
his early life. As the boy grows, his interests change from 
those of boyhood to those of manhood. That is the reason 
why travel, adventure, invention, biography, love-stories, 
and outdoor books appeal to the interests and needs of boys 
at various ages. They should read carefully and slowly so 
as to absorb what they read. Story-telling, with suggestions 
where more can be read, is helpful. Not all magazines are 
interesting to boys. They are interested in magazines of 



174 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

outdoor life, invention, handicraft, etc. Practical talks ap- 
peal to working boys. The talk should be informal, provid- 
ing definite information, new incentives for effort, and defi- 
nite character-building. A talk should suggest a subject on 
which the pupil will do further reading. Many of the pupils 
in vocational and apprentice classes are foreigners or of for- 
eign descent, and the work must be adapted to their needs. 

Rules for oral composition. Insist upon correct expres- 
sion at all times. The pupil should give complete sentences 
four or five times in reciting. Frequent oral composition on 
the work being done should be given by the pupil to the 
class. He should stand in front of the class, in a free and 
easy position, and state what he is doing. 

Careful enunciation of syllables, particularly the final 
syllable, should be required. 

Do not allow the pupil to use long sentences. Cultivate 
a habit of using short, concise sentences. 

Do not permit the use of slang. Teach the pupils to be 
accurate in their statements, and try to cultivate the use of 
discriminating words used in the trades. 

As far as possible have all written work preceded by oral 
drill. To illustrate : if a pupil is asked to write a letter to his 
brother telling of his work, he should tell the class what he is 
going to write. 

The following rules should be required to develop proper 
writing habits: 

1. Write on only one side of the sheet of paper. 

2. Have a balanced margin at the top and bottom, and at the 
sides of paper, on which compositions are written. 

3. All sentences should begin with a capital letter. 

4. Sentences should end with a period. 

5. Sentences involving a question should end with an interroga- 
tion point (?) 

6. A liberal space should intervene between consecutive lines 
and consecutive words. 



TEACHING ENGLISH 175 

7. The use of commas in series should be used. 

8. The use of long compound and complex sentences should be 
discouraged. 

9. Slang should not be used. Shop or technical expressions 
should be in quotation marks (" "), and the meaning in 
parentheses. 

The following detached outline will illustrate the above 
principles: 

Three- Year Course in English for Shipfitters* Apprentices 
First Year [ 

Time: One month — one hour a week: Practice in spelling and de- 
scription of the various tools, appliances, materials, and fittings 
used in the tool-room. 

Four months: Short oral and written composition work based on 
the work of the apprentices, such as drilling, reaming, chipping, 
and calking on various parts of the ship (deck platforms, compart- 
ments, divisions, etc.). Description of such terms as section, stern, 
port, starboard, forward, aft, and after ends of the ships: bulkheads, 
shell waterline, tanks (oil, and fresh water), drainage, etc.; armor 
plate, cage masts, and turrets. This practice will develop in the 
pupil the power to express what he is doing in simple and direct 
English. 

Four months: Review principles of grammar relating to the use 
of nouns and pronouns so that the apprentice will know when and 
how to use capital letters and simple punctuation. Composition 
on bulkheads, hatches, doors, etc. 

Three months: Practice in giving explanations and directions. 
Develop the power to express in short, concise sentences such as 
directions marked on templates. Describe length, breadth, thick- 
ness, scroll, curve forms, etc. Composition on trunks, ammunition 
hoist, bits, etc. 

Second Year 

One month: Simple description (both oral and written) on drill- 
ing, planing, scarfing machines, on searchlight platforms and cage 
mast. 

Three months: Review of the section of grammar relating to sub- 
ject and predicate to show the pupil that the predicate agrees with 
the subject. Composition on uptakes, bridges, and conning tower. 



176 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

One month: Letter writing and shop-order slips. Teach four 
types of letters: letter to a parent; letter to a friend; letter to a 
public official; letter to a superior official, etc. Bring out the four 
essential parts of every letter. 

Three months: Practice in writing — description of shop-work 
with special emphasis on the division of the composition into par- 
agraphs. Engine- and boiler-room foundations, ammunition stor- 
age and boat cranes. 

One month: Discussion and practice in writing according to the 
following outline: Planning, manufacture, and installation. 

Three months: Composition on the turrets and bulkheads, hatches 
and armored decks. 

Third Year 

Six months: Considerable practice during this period should be 
devoted at this time to both oral and written descriptions. Effort 
should be made to correct every-day mistakes and develop the 
power to write lengthy descriptions in simple, direct, and concise 
language. Compositions based on method of propulsion, steering, 
procedure in building shell of ship, launching, etc. 

Five months: During this period the apprentice should write re- 
ports and descriptions of what he is doing. Emphasis should be 
laid on accuracy and details in describing the building of a ship — 
designing, planning, manufacturing, and assembling. 

One month: Written and oral composition on the economical and 
efficient methods of production. 

The process of Americanization must follow along the 
lines of interest to the immigrant. He will learn English if 
he sees it is to his advantage. Therefore incentives must be 
offered. The greatest incentive to the recently arrived im- 
migrant is an advancement in his work, increase in his earn- 
ings. The academic work must center around his daily 
occupation. 

The English should consist of a series of graded lessons on 
the conservation, commands, names of parts of machines, 
tools, etc., that he uses in his work. This is the necessary 
English. As far as possible the work should be carried on 
through the activities of the shop or mill. 1 

1 See page 177 for course of study for mill-workers,. 



TEACHING ENGLISH 



177 



Foreigners usually live in communities by themselves and 
seldom have occasion to use English. The club, the coffee- 
houses, the stores, and friends all use the mother tongue in 
conversation. Any attempt to teach English along general 
educational lines will fail at this period. 

The desirable English is the English necessary to become 
a citizen. The foreigner should know the value of citizen- 
ship. This can be done by developing among the workmen 
social and industrial justice. 1 

Illustrative Lessons in Industrial English for 
Non-English-Speaking Workers 

Class in Cotton-Mill English 

English on the Picker Machine: Picture or model of machine before 

the class 

is : This is a picker 

is called : This cover is called a " beater cover." 

turns : The beater turns around rapidly. 

be seen : The beater turns so fast that it cannot be seen. 

breaks : It breaks the cotton into small parts. 

loosens : The beater also loosens the dirt from the cotton. 

be lifted : The beater cover must never be lifted until the 

stops : belt stops. 

did : The man in the picture did this. 

lost : He lost his arm. 



Good Rules 

clean : Do not clean the beater when the machine is in 

motion, 
clean : Clean the beater once or twice every day. 

pick out : Do not pick out the picker droppings with the 

machine in motion, 
stands : The man stands at the machine, 

is : The machine is a picker. 

is running : The picker is running, 
has : The man's hand has four fingers and one thumb. 

1 See page 179 for course of study. 



178 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



has : The man has his hand on the lap. 

will be drawn : The man's hand will be drawn in. 

be broken : His fingers will be broken. 

run : Do you run a picker? 

must be : If you do you must be careful. 

put : Never put your hand on the lap or roll. 

lose : You will lose your fingers. 

Picture or model of a loom before the class 

am : I am a weaver, 

have learned : I have just learned to weave, 

run : I run six looms, 

shows : This picture shows a man at a loom. 

is : The warp is in its place, 

are filled : The bobbins are filled with yarn, 

holds : The magazine holds the bobbins, 

feeds : The magazine feeds bobbins to the shuttles, 

is : Everything is ready, 

pull : I pull the lever with my hand, 

weaves : The loom weaves cloth, 

winds : The roll winds the cloth as fast as woven. ■ 

breaks : A thread breaks and the loom stops, 

is fixed : The thread is fixed, 

start : I start the loom again. 



Most of the factory operations require semi-skilled and 
unskilled workers; each operation requiring only a short 
training. The only education that can be provided for un- 
skilled workers is recreational education, and this is often 
provided by the manufacturers, under the head of "welfare 
work." l 

Information relating to vocational life may be taught 
under the head of "civics." There is a very intimate con- 
nection between vocational success and good citizenship. 
Every successful citizen should be an efficient producer and 
should render service to the community. Included in the 

1 See page 233. 



TEACHING ENGLISH 179 

course should be material relating to the economic activities 
of the community, the history and opportunities, etc.; and 
all of the positions in the industries. In this way children 
may be taught their industrial obligations and opportuni- 
ties. In fact, every subject in the course of study is suscep- 
tible of an industrial or vocational interpretation. Teachers 
have numbers of opportunities to speak to the children in 
terms of industrialism and citizenship. Frequent excur- 
sions should be made to industries to obtain first-hand 
information. History should be centered around the 
growth of the industries as successfully as it has covered 
literature, politics, and the careers of successful generals, 
statesmen, etc. 

The content of information to be imparted to the appren- 
tice or pupil, under the head of related trade knowledge, 
must consist of the underlying principles of English, mathe- 
matics, the sciences, drawing, materials, hand tools, power 
tools, transmission of power, etc. Each different shop pro- 
ject or practice should be analyzed into the hand tools, 
power tools, materials, processes, etc., the English, mathe- 
matics, sciences, etc., and the information desired placed 
under each column. 

The arrangement of content of information to be imparted 
to a pupil in a vocational or apprentice school should be dif- 
ferent from that of the regular school. The course in the 
regular school was founded on logical development, and a 
certain type of pupil accepted this development on faith. 
The pupil in the vocational school with his practical mind 
will not accept the arrangement on faith. He must see the 
value of knowledge and must have his interest aroused. 
The strongest interest is the desire to learn a trade; there- 
fore the point of attack for all work, especially the aca- 
demic work, should be around the vocational interest. The 
knowledge may be presented in the following order: 



180 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

1. The knowledge absolutely necessary. 

2. Show the value of more knowedge, then present the desirable 
knowledge. 

3. The accomplishment or culture of the subject. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 

1. An instructor in shop English in an industrial school found that the 
pupils lacked interest in the Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin, 
after reading the first twenty pages. They desire to read trade maga- 
zines. Is the instructor justified in dropping the Autobiography for 
the trade magazine? Why? 

2. Have the average pupils or apprentices in a secondary trade school 
much interest in general education? Why? 

3. Why is it difficult to hold the attention of a group of apprentices in 
shop English for any length of time? 

4. A pupil in an industrial continuation school objected to the study of 
grammar from a textbook. Explain why. 

5. Why does a practical man appeal to the average pupil in a trade 
school more than the technical or academic teacher? 

6. In many cooperative high-school courses pupils are obliged to spend 
the first year on high-school subjects. Is this a good plan? Why? 

7. Investigations show that pupils in coSperative industrial courses fre- 
quently leave after learning the trade and become salesmen for me- 
chanical lines. Explain this change. 

8. Should technical journals be accessible to apprentices, tradesmen, and 
pupils? Where is a convenient place for these journals to be kept? 

9. Explain some of the ways in which the element of citizenship may be 
taught to apprentices in the shop. 

LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING ' 

* "Teaching English." M. D. Lewis. Outlook, vol. 94, p. 631. 

(A very effective method of teaching English.) 

* " Oral Composition." E. M. Bolenius. Education, vol. 31, p. 119. 

(The importance of training pupils in oral composition.) 

* "On the Teaching of Written Composition." L. Cooper. Education, 

vol. 30, p. 421. 

* "The Differentiation of High School Course in English." Education, 

vol. 31, p. 639. 

(Need of different courses in English to meet varied needs of 
pupils.) 

* The Teaching of History and Civics. Henry E. Bourne. 

(A discussion of the most effective methods.) 



CHAPTER XVI 

MANUAL TRAINING VERSUS INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Manual training owes its existence primarily to the feel- 
ing among manufacturers and educators, after the Centen- 
nial Exhibition in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1876 that 
the various exhibits of industrial and trade products showed 
that the workmen of some European countries were superior 
to the American workmen. It was said that this superiority 
was due to the system of technical and industrial education 
in vogue in those countries. As a result of this opinion, 
school systems were asked to adopt a form of technical and 
industrial education that would meet this industrial defi- 
ciency among the American workmen. 

The school authorities adopted a form of education called 
"manual training," based upon the schoolmaster's theory of 
industrial education; that is, to train the eye and hand so 
as to develop manual dexterity. The operation of wood- 
working was analyzed, and from this analysis a series of ex- 
ercises in planing, marking, sawing, chiseling, etc., on wood, 
was developed. To illustrate : the child was taught to make 
a half-dozen different kinds of saw cuts on wood, and then 
to throw the cuts of wood away. In the same way joints of 
various kinds were made purely for practice. A similar 
course was constructed in metal-working. As time went on 
the public began to criticize this method of teaching — as 
not being "practical." Then method No. 9, was adopted 
to meet this objection; it consisted of exercises that made 
useful articles. These two methods rested on the belief that 
the mind was composed of faculties and that training (coor- 
dinating) the hand and eye was general, and that it would 



182 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

give a general handiness (manual dexterity) that would 
apply to all trades and industries. A boy who could use 
his hands to advantage in wood-working would be equally 
successful in other trades, such as tailoring. 

After a number of years this theory was proven to be 
false. It was shown that hand training is not general, but 
is valuable only for the specific occupation in which the 
training is related. Method No. 3 (industrial method) was 
next introduced into the schools, and consisted in making 
simplified and primitive forms (objects) that would repre- 
sent typical industries and trades, such as weaving raffia, 
to represent the textile industries, cobbling, the shoe indus- 
try, etc. 

Method No. 4 (aesthetic method) was introduced to cor- 
relate the drawing and the manual work based upon the 
theory that the child is interested in constructing both 
beautiful and useful objects. Here was a method by which 
the child could express his ideas in beautiful and useful 
forms. 

The correlation idea in method No. 4 was improved upon 
in method No. 5 (social method), when all forms of manual 
work were made the center of instruction for other subjects. 
The sixth and present method of manual training is called 
"industrial arts," and consists in illustrating the actual 
industries of to-day. 

The history of manual training represents a very inter- 
esting development in methods of teaching. The first 
method held the interest of the child because he wanted to 
do something with his hands. Method No. 2 held his 
interest better because he is still interested in making some- 
thing practical. Method No. 3 held his interest because 
his hand-work was more varied than before. Method 
No. 4 was a better method because it correlated the theory 
of drawing with the boy's greatest interest — hand-work. 



MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 183 

Method No. 5 was an improvement because it increased the 
degree of correlation. Method No. 6 is a still greater im- 
provement because the child is learning, by doing, about the 
industries of to-day that he will enter to-morrow. 

Industrial arts should be introduced into every grade of 
the school system. Before the age of twelve or up to the 
sixth grade the work should consist of a variety of hand- 
work, to give the child a variety of experiences in doing and 
learning many things, and not strive for a high degree of 
skill in any one form of the activities. The early life of the 
child consists of motor rather than reflective activities. 
The objects and materials used by the children up to this 
period should be large, as the physical development of the 
child will not allow him to work with small materials or fine 
instruments. 

After the age of twelve opportunities should be provided 
for two classes of pupils : those who desire to continue their 
industrial arts (manual training) education, and those who 
desire to obtain a prevocational education. The present 
method of teaching manual arts or, better, industrial arts, 
may be improved and made a very important part of the 
general education of the child, by giving him a training in 
the study of the industries of to-day by making projects of 
present industrial value, and combining with it a discussion 
of the industry or trade showing the value of mathematics, 
drawing, science, etc. The work will have considerable 
educational value, depending much upon the way the sub- 
ject is presented and the amount of interest shown by the 
teachers. For we must remember that mere motor activi- 
ties may assist in mental development during the first few 
years of a child's life, and in the early period of the educa- 
tion of the feeble-minded, no evidence has ever been offered 
or presented showing that motor activities, pure and simple, 
without any other related thinking process, have any influ- 



184 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

ence upon the development of the mind. It is possible to 
organize a course of study based upon either practice or 
observation, or both, of samples of various trades and indus- 
tries; these can be selected, graded, and adapted to public 
school work, so as to stimulate the thinking process of the 
pupil, and in this manner promote both his physical and 
mental development. 

It is clear that this cannot be done with the limited amount 
of time assigned to industrial arts at the present time. It 
is proposed that two hours a week be taken from the regular 
program, making in all five hours a week to be devoted to 
the subject of industries. This can be done without working 
a hardship to the present program, for it will mean simply a 
readjustment of some of the studies. 

How to arrange such a course of study in industrial arts 
so as to have the proper development of motor and intel- 
lectual activities has raised some difficult pedagogical 
problems. It has been shown above that during the early 
stages of the elementary-school program very little reflec- 
tive work should be provided with the hand- work. But as 
soon as the child enters the sixth grade he should begin to 
think about the hand- work and develop the habit of reading 
about the industries. To show that a great deal of time is 
wasted in our elementary-school program, as far as returns 
are concerned, consider the time devoted to geography, and 
how little knowledge of this subject is retained by the 
average adult. This is due primarily to the fact that geo- 
graphical knowledge as often presented is a mere abstrac- 
tion that is neither interesting nor clear to the average 
child. 

A course in a study of industries presented in an interest- 
ing manner will arouse the vocational interests of the child. 
The excursion, observation, or hand-work may be the basis 
of instruction. The writer suggests four readers, with 



MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 185 

attractive titles to supply the related industrial information: 

1. The Farmer and His Friend. 

2. Diggers of the Earth (Miners). 

3. Makers of Many Things (Manufacturers). 

4. Travelers and Traveling (Commerce). 

Each reader should contain information about the raw 
materials, the manufacture, trades, machines, etc., of an ob- 
ject that is familiar to the child, and that he uses at school 
or home. 

The greatest educational value of industrial arts is ob- 
tained when the pupil is taught in the school shops, so that 
he works out his own plan as independently and completely 
as possible. The plan in the shops would be along this line : 
First, a general discussion of the purpose of the work: a 
study of the material to be used. Pupils should examine 
and compare various samples and models. Second, pupils 
with the aid of the teacher will work out plans. This can 
be done economically by the teacher working with the class 
as a whole. Pupils should be encouraged to look up all 
information on the subject. Third, each pupil should work 
out his own plans in writing, with drawings and calculations, 
and submit them to the teacher for approval. Fourth, the 
pupil should be allowed to proceed with the work. 

However important manual training and prevocational 
education are, they must not be confused with industrial 
education — which aims to prepare a pupil definitely for a 
trade. It is a fact that industrial arts work or manual 
training was instituted to prepare pupils for the trades and 
industries, but the experience of twenty-five years shows us 
that it has failed to do so. What applies to industrial arts, 
applies equally well to household arts. In making this 
statement I know that there are isolated teachers doing 
splendid work in cabinet-making, printing, etc., under the 
head of manual training, and have sent boys directly to the 



186 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

trades, and there are some teachers doing manual training 
under the name of industrial work. Nevertheless I feel that 
this distinction applies to the general case. 

The purpose of a course determines to a large degree the 
method of teaching and the kind of information imparted. 
An industrial course is to prepare specifically for a definite 
occupation, and it is necessary to train the pupil in the 
shortest time in skill and knowledge for that trade. The 
tools, equipment, and conditions in an industrial school 
shop must be similar to a commercial shop, the instructor 
a skilled mechanic of that trade, and the class must do com- 
mercial work under commercial conditions as nearly as 
possible. The work in an industrial school is largely indi- 
vidual and each member should be allowed to progress at a 
rate which is in accordance with his development. Since 
emphasis is on speed and skill, which means concentration 
on the part of the pupil to his work, it allows very little time 
to study procedure. His science, drawing, and mathematics 
are the science, drawing, and mathematics of his trade, so 
that specialization is carried on in all the school work. 
Emphasis is laid on the ability to do work, and not the talk 
about doing it. Classes are small — not over fifteen pupils 
at one time. 

Industrial arts work or manual training, on the other 
hand, is a part of general education, and as such is governed 
by the existing general educational methods. Emphasis is 
laid on the complete comprehension of the scientific side 
of each subject. Larger classes, usually twenty-four, are 
allowed in industrial arts work, and the class usually works 
on the same project or exercise together. 

Prevocational work is usually provided during the years 
from twelve to fourteen, and as the average child has not 
the physical development sufficiently to use his fingers 
for purposes of precision in some trades until he is at least 



MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 187 

fourteen years of age, and in most cases sixteen, the aver- 
age pupil cannot do vocational work in a prevocational 
class. 

Since the great majority of pupils must leave school, for 
economic and other reasons, when they reach the age of 
fourteen years, it is clear that whatever training a pupil 
receives for the work he is to do he must receive in the 
industrial arts, prevocational classes, and short unit indus- 
trial courses. That is the reason why those classes should 
be well developed, so that a course of study will be presented 
that will include every fundamental mode of utilizing the 
mind which the industries employ in the conduct of their 
affairs. This will give to the motor-minded boy interest 
and growth — which are necessary to power and self-con- 
fidence in doing the day's work. The problems that are 
to be studied should arise in a vital and natural way so that 
the motor-minded boy will see the need of study and memo- 
rizing in his school work. 1 

Prevocational Course 
The course of study for a prevocational school must be a 
varied one if it is to help boys and girls to find themselves. 
It should consist of an organized training in practical arts, 
which will include a variety of experiences fundamental to 
the life of the community. This includes wood-working, 
metal-working, printing, plumbing and sheet-metal work, 
and electrical construction, as they are all found in all com- 
munities, and possess content that can be easily adapted 
to school in the form of projects. This is different from a 
vocational course in wood- working, metal-work, or printing. 
Like the vocational work it will consist of a series of jobs, 
projects, or enterprises which in their accomplishment will 
give the boy an insight and appreciative understanding of 
1 See page 194 for course of study. 



188 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

fundamental processes in the more important industries of 
every community. 1 

One half of the time in school should be given to related 
work in English, social studies, mathematics, science, for an 
intelligent understanding of civic and social responsibilities. 
The projects should be real commercial work, as is usually 
necessary in a school plant, in order to test the interests and 
capacities of the pupils. 

The shop-work in a prevocational or industrial class 
should be arranged in a series of projects, each involving a 
new principle. A project card (see pp. 190, 191) should be 
used with each project. The card should contain the pupil's 
name, the pupil in charge of the project, senior pupil, and 
the helper's name, junior pupil. A space for the following 
marks should be left at the top of the card, related trade 
knowledge, and effort. These marks may be given by the 
teacher when the project or job is completed. The cards 
are kept on file as a matter of record; the date the job is 
started and the time it is finished, that the number of hours 
(total hours) may be calculated; the materials and tools 
ordered from the stock-room should be listed by the pupil 
after he has determined the proper equipment. The pieces 
should be obtained from the catalogue on file, at the tool- 
room window. The difference between stock and tools 
ordered and those used at the list prices (catalogue) repre- 
sents the charge of the job outside of the labor. At the bot- 
tom of the card the cost of the job should be calculated 
according to the form of the standard wage. On the rear 
side of the card the drawing or sketch of the completed 
work should be made, and below, a description of the job 
or project. 

Thus it is possible to mark on one card the related shop 
knowledge with complete data. The marks from the pro- 
1 See page 193 for course of study. 



MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 189 

ject card may be transferred at the teacher's leisure to a 
permanent record card called a "project marking card." 

Prevocational instructors. If the interest and capacity 
of a boy is to be successfully tested, the experiences given 
to him must be as near like the actual shop as possible, 
otherwise it lacks reality. In order to carry out this idea 
successfully, it is absolutely necessary to have instructors 
who possess not only a general acquaintanceship with, and 
knowledge of, the industries presented in the course of 
study, but they should give evidence of ability to make an 
intelligent study of the progress in methods and processes 
of work in industry, so that the school may be able to keep 
abreast of the times. This can be accomplished by the 
instructors working in industrial establishments during 
vacation periods. The uninterested teacher may be able 
to hold on in the regular school system, but the success of 
the prevocational work is dependent in such a large degree 
upon the teacher's power to hold and interest the pupils, 
and upon his qualities of adaptability, originality, initiative, 
and keen interest, that only the exceptional teacher should 
be employed. 

The plan of the prevocational training in New York City 
is as follows : Pupils in the seventh and eighth grade classes 
are allowed to select a prevocational course which includes 
two groups of studies — the academic and the shop-work. 
The first includes the essentials of English, arithmetic, sci- 
ence, history, and geography. The second includes the 
theory and practice of mechanical drawing, free-hand 
drawing, electric wiring, garment design, joinery, sheet- 
metal work, machine-shop practice, printing, plumbing, 
and sign-painting. 

The time allotment during the week is as follows : 

Total time 35 hours 

Shop time 15 hours 



LsrrcsTRiAL Arts or Prevocattonal Work 
Student or Apprentice in charge of job Helper's name 

Mark of workmanship Mark for related trade knowledge 

Mark of diagram Effort 

Job or project started Finished Total hours 

Materials ordered Catalogue Price issue Returned tools Charge 
Tools ordered 



REAR SIDE OF CARD 

Diagram of work 
Description of job or project 



Cost of Job 

Er. Rate 
Mechanic's time 

Er. Rate 
Helper's time 

Rate 

Material, lb. or ft. 

Total 



Industrial Arts or Prevocational Work 



Name Class , 

Born Entered shop , 

Rating 



Job or project 



Layout 



Job 



Effort 



192 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Academic time 20 hours 

English 5 hours 

Arithmetic 3 hours 

History, geography 2 hours 

Science 2 hours 

Physical training, hygiene 5 hours 

Related drawing 3 hours 

The academic material is correlated with the shop sub- 
jects and shop instruction. In order to do this effectively 
the academic instructors spend one hour daily in the shops 
consulting the shop teacher and pupils so that he is able to 
talk intelligently in the class work about the shop instruc- 
tion. Pupils receive samples of different kinds of industrial 
work during the two years. The afternoons during the first 
nine weeks are devoted to machine work. Pupils showing 
unusually marked ability in the trade may continue in this 
branch, while those who show that they are not proficient 
change to electric wiring the second term of nine weeks. 
This scheme is continued every nine weeks in woodworking, 
sheet-metal work, commercial subjects, etc., until the pupil 
has found the trade that he is best adapted to follow. 

The course provides for the presentation of instruction 
from the most elementary exercises to the finished job. The 
correlated work of the academic department has been 
planned with a view to giving it at a period when the work 
will be most timely. It is a significant fact that most cor- 
related work of the printing class, particularly the formal 
English, possesses the double value of being cultural as well 
as technical. 

In like manner the mathematics of printing, whether it 
be to find the number of ems in a given piece of work or 
determining the number of pieces that can be cut from a 
full sheet of paper, is of a kind that has a value other than 
its application to this trade. Experience has shown that 



MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 



193 



this course, supplemented by a certain amount of individual 
instruction, will enable pupils possessing an aptitude to gain 
in one term a range of experience equivalent to that gained 
during two years in the average printing office. 

Specimens show that the pupils have done considerable 
printing for their schools as well as for other schools in the 
vicinity. However, in no sense are schools in competition 
with the trade. If the schools did not have the printing 
equipment, the work would not have been done at all, 
because there would have been no funds available. 

The following outline illustrates how the shop-work may 
be correlated with the academic work: 



Practical work 

Learning arrangement of 
alphabet in type case 

Making diagrams of type 
cases 

(a) California job case 

(b) News cases 
Learning case 
Memory tests in location 



Printing 

Shop-work 

Origin of printing 
Spread of printing 
Printing in education 

and commerce; in 

newspapers and 

periodicals 
Knowledge of grammar 

and spelling essential 



of alphabet in type case Font of type 



Posture at case 
Holding stick properly 
Exercises "in picking up 

properly and placing 

into stick 
Exercises to develop 

speed and uniformity 

of motion in setting 
Spacing 

(a) Even spacing 

(b) Determining amount 
of space between 
words 

(c) Space after "points" Care of equipment 

(d) Solid matter (a) Composing-room 



Body type 
Job faces 

Name of type faces 
Origin of names 
Technical terms 

(a) Used in press- 

room 

(b) Used in compos- 

ing-room 
Uses of equipment 

(a) Composing-room 

(b) Press-room 



Correlation 

Mathematics 

Leads to pica 

Leads to inch 

Points to lead 

Points to pica 

Points to inch 

Picas to inch 
English 

Spelling 

Punctuation 

Proof-reading 

Syllabication 
History 

First movable type 
Science 

Type-making 
History 

First Bible and 

other books 
Science 

Type-making 

Mathematics 
Point system 



194 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



Practical work 
(e) Leaded matter 
Justifying type in stick 



Shop-work 
(b) Press-room 
Furniture 

(a) Wood 

(b) Metal 

Size of type and spac- 
ing material 



Correlation 

English 
Spelling 
Proof-reading 
Punctuation 
Syllabication 

Mathematics 
Point system 
Points to em quad 
Points to en quad 
Points to 3 em space 
Points to 4 em space 
Points to 5 em space 

English 
Spelling 



Plan foe Prevocational Education 
Tentative Courses of Study 

A. Academic work. Approximately half time. 

1. English. Language work based on reading, much of the 
reading to bear on the industries. Composition, dealing 
with the occupational work of the school, business corre- 
spondence, business forms, spelling, and penmanship. 
Aim to cultivate a love for reading. 

2. Arithmetic. To be of a very practical nature, including 
fundamental processes, short methods used in business, 
business and trade arithmetic, with emphasis on immedi- 
ate application to the industrial work of the school. 



3. 



Geography. 
history. 



Chiefly industrial, and closely related to 



4. Hi-story. Closely related to geography, and dealing with 
the industrial and commercial development of the city, 
state, and country. 

5. Chic and social duties. Relation of the individual to the 
community, state, and country; relation of the worker to 
his work, to his employer, and to his fellow workmen; 
duties and responsibilities, both civic and social, with 
special reference to sanitation, personal hygiene, etc. 



MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 195 

B. Industrial work. Approximately half time. 

1. Wood-working. To consist principally of carpentry, in- 
cluding such other forms of work as may be called for by 
the projects undertaken. Study of tools; machines and 
structures, such as garages, poultry-houses; problems in 
framing, truss construction, and repair work, with empha- 
sis on the latter. 

2. Metal-working. To consist of work in hot and cold bar 
metal and sheet metal. Practical problems in repairs 
and construction which develop in the equipping of the 
school, will supply work for some time. This will include 
such work as the making of brace and angle irons, bolts, 
machine and bolt guards, simple tools, pipe cutting and 
threading, metal parts of electrical and other apparatus. 

In addition to this, the students should take apart and 
assemble the old machines, endeavoring to find out how 
they work and why they work. Study carefully the prin- 
ciples of the automatic machine and the method of con- 
veying power through machines to the point of doing the 
work, the intention of this work being to familiarize the 
students with the general principles of machine construc- 
tion. 

S.^Printing and binding. To consist of the simpler forms, 
mainly the printing of forms, cards, announcements, etc., 
required for the school; this work to be supplemented by 
special work in English, proof-reading, design, and color 
harmony. 

4. Electrical construction. To consist of elementary work in 
battery construction, magnetism, induction, small motor 
and dynamo construction, wiring, electrical measurements, 
and testing. Experiments with batteries, induction coils, 
and the wiring of bell, telegraph, telephone, and other 
circuits, will be worked out on specially constructed frames. 

5. Drawing. To be elementary in character, but practical 
and related directly to the projects undertaken by the 
pupils in the various shops. To consist of both free-hand 
sketching and mechanical drawing of the common parts 
of machines such as nuts, bolts, screws, etc. 



196 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Program of Classes 





First year 


Second year 




Section 1 


Section 2 


Section 1 


Section 2 


Mondays, Wednes- 
days, Fridays 

Mornings 

Afternoons . . 
Tuesdays and 
Thursdays 

Mornings. . . . 
Afternoons . . 


Shop-work 
Book-work 

Book-work 
Shop-work 


Book-work 
Shop-work 

Shop-work 
Book-work 


Shop-work 
Book-work 

Book-work 
Shop-work 


Book-work 
Shop-work 

Shop-work 
Book- work 



While section 1 of the first class is receiving instruction in the 
wood-working shop during the first half-year, section 2 is in the 
printing shop. During the second half-year the two sections are 
reversed. Similarly, the two sections of the second-year class 
alternate between the metal shop and the electrical shop. In all 
cases one half of each day is spent in the shop and the other half 
in book-work, as already noted. 

A program for manual training usually includes a double period 
or one half the morning or afternoon. The academic work is not 
usually correlated with the shop activities. 

Instructors in manual training are usually graduates in the 
manual training courses of colleges and normal schools. Many 
have received both their professional and shop training in the nor- 
mal and college classrooms and shops. Naturally they bring into 
the school shop the general educational methods and not the com- 
mercial methods of the industrial world, which latter are so neces- 
sary in training a boy to be a mechanic. It is seldom that the man- 
ual training instructor is willing to go into the commercial shop 
after he has begun to teach in order to get the commercial shop 
training. This lack in manual training instructors of commercial 
shop experience is the principal reason why they are not usually 
employed in vocational and prevocational schools. Experience 
shows that it is possible to take an experienced mechanic from the 
industrial world and supplement his experience with sufficient 
knowledge on principles and methods to make an effective shop 
instructor and that it is not a satisfactory plan to train industrial 
teachers by giving them all their shop experience in a school shop. 



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198 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 



1. The city officials of a large community recently decided to do away 
with manual training in the school system, on the ground that it was 
expensive and the schools were not obliged to teach it. Were the 
school officials justified? 

2. Explain why the manual training in the general high school of a tex- 
tile community usually teaches wood-working and metal-working, 
and ignores the most important industrial activity of the city? 

3. Should cobbling be taught in the grades? 

4. Industrial arts are often used instead of manual training to-dav. 
Why? 

5. A principal of a large elementary school desires printing taught in 
order to have plenty of forms for the office. Is this good pedagogy? 

6. An instructor in wood-working in a prevocational school has made 
out a definite course of study, but is unable to follow same, on account 
of the demand for flower-pot stands, and other improvements for the 
school. The principal of the school approves of these demands. 
WTiat are the advantages and disadvantages of such a plan? 

7. In the poorer sections of a large cosmopolitan city a number of prevo- 
cational classes were established, while none were formed in the 
wealthier parts of the city. Is this fair to the citizens? 

8. Is it possible to teach trades in a prevocational school? 

9. A principal of a large school finds a number of boys who are about 
to leave school. He places them in a prevocational class in machine- 
shop work, and insists that they be taught how to run a lathe in order 
that they may secure a position later. Is he justified in doing this? 

10. How will manual training or industrial arts assist in vocational guid- 
ance? 

11. An instructor in wood- working in a high school makes a few chairs 
for the school, and he states he is doing trade work and should secure 
state aid. Should the class receive state approval? 

12. Explain why boys like to work in wood- working. 

13. Should an industrial arts course in a school system include all forms 
of industrial activities open to the boy of that community? 

14. Should girls be allowed to take metal-working in a high school? 

15. A teacher of pattern-making claims that a course in pattern-making 
"teaches pupils to be accurate and careful." Does psychology justify 
this statement? 

16. A community cannot afford to support both an industrial and a pre- 
vocational school. WTiich one should be omitted? Why? 

17. State the educational values of the following: (a) forging in the tech- 
nical course in a high school; (b) sign painting in a prevocational 
course; (c) plumbing in an evening trade school; (d) hand weaving in 
the third grade; (e) refinishing a piece of furniture in the eighth grade. 



MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 199 



LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING 

* What can the Grade School do for Industrial Education? A. Garlin Spen- 

cer. National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. 
Proceedings, 1908. 

(Need of reorganization of grade work so as to contribute to 
industrial education.) 
** "Three Stages in Industrial Education." Manual Training and Voca- 
tional Education Magazine, January, 1916. 

* * The Place of Industries in Elementary Education. Katherine Dopp. 

(Shows the relationship between industries and the social develop- 
ment of the workers.) 

* * Hand and Eye Training. Waldemar Goetz. 

* The Educational Value of Manual Training. C. M. Woodward. 

* "Relation of Manual to Industrial Education." C. R. Richards. 

Manual Training and Vocational Magazine, October, 1907. 
(Distinction between manual and industrial training.) 

* Report on the Organization and Extension of Prevocational Training in 

Elementary Schools. W. L. Ettinger. Department of Education, 
New York City. 

(A valuable contribution. Methods and courses of study are 
given.) 



APPENDIX 
TYPE AND SUGGESTIVE COURSES OF STUDY 

COURSE IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING IN COLLEGE 
GRADE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL 

(To supplement page 30) 

The course in mechanical engineering aims, first, to give the 
student a thorough training in such fundamentals as physics, 
mathematics, and applied mechanics; then, by means of lectures, 
laboratory work, and drawing-room work, to make him familiar 
with the various problems with which a mechanical engineer has 
to deal. He is also given a training in the mechanic arts sufficient 
to make him familiar with the use of shop tools, foundry practice, 
forging and pattern work, such knowledge being essential to the 
successful designer of machinery. 

The work in mechanism includes the study of linkages, cams, 
gear teeth, valve gears of steam engines, and, in the advanced 
courses, given in the third year, the application of mechanisms 
to machine tools and to automatic machinery. The course in 
heat engineering covers thermodynamics, steam engines, boilers, 
gas engines, gas producers, and power station accessories. Courses 
are given in Applied Dynamics, Foundations, Factory Construc- 
tion, Heating and Ventilation, Refrigeration, Industrial Manage- 
ment, and on Physical Metallurgy. The student is given suffi- 
cient work in electrical engineering subjects to enable him to 
handle the ordinary problems which may confront him. A 
thorough course in Theoretical Hydraulics is followed by Hy- 
draulic Engineering, a course in which both the estimation and 
the utilization of hydraulic power are discussed. Instruction in 
drawing extends to the end of the third year, the work finishing 
with the complete design and calculation of a boiler. The course 
in machine design, extending through both terms of the senior 
year, and the course in power plant design, afford the student an 
opportunity of applying many of the facts learned in preceding 
years. In the fourth year the student is offered the option of 



202 APPENDIX 

courses in Engine Design, Locomotive Construction, Mill Engi- 
neering, and Steam Turbine Engineering. 

The laboratory work in steam, hydraulics, and strength of 
materials is planned to follow the classroom work, and thereby 
assist the student in getting a better grasp of these subjects. 

(The whole question of industrial education for college grade 
has been investigated during the last few years by Professor 
Charles R. Mann, of the Carnegie Foundation of Learning, New 
York City.) 



COURSE OF STUDY IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 
FOR A COLLEGE GRADE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL 

First Year 

First Term Second Term 

Mathematics Mathematics 

Plane Trigonometry Inorganic Chemistry; Laboratory, 

Inorganic Chemistry; Laboratory, Lectures and Recitations 

Lectures and Recitations Mechanical Drawing and 
Mechanical Drawing and Descriptive Geometry 

Descriptive Geometry Free-hand Drawing 

Free-hand Drawing Foreign Language 

Foreign Language English 

Rhetoric and English Composition History 

Military Science Military Science 

Physical Training Physical Training 

Second Year 

First Term Second Term 

Mechanism Mechanism and Valve Gears 

Mechanical Engineering, Drawing Mechanical Engineering, Drawing 
Descriptive Geometry Applied Mechanics 

Forging Foundry 

Mathematics Forging 

Physics Mathematics 

Physical Laboratory Physics 

Foreign Language Physical Laboratory 

English Precision of Measurements 

English 



APPENDIX 



203 



Third Year 



First Term 
Heat Engineering 
Applied Mechanics 
Machine Drawing 
Wood-work and Pattern-Making 
Mathematics 
Surveying 
History 

Political Economy 
General Studies 



Second Term 
Heat Engineering 
Applied Mechanics 
Mechanism of Machines 
Mechanical Engineering, Drawing 
Boiler Design 
Engineering Laboratory 
Electrical Engineering 
Physical Metallurgy 
Vise and Bench Work 
Business Law 
General Studies 



Fourth Year 



First Term 
Machine Design 
Applied Mechanics 
Testing Materials, Laboratory 
Dynamics of Machines 
Engineering, Laboratory 
Theoretical Hydraulics 
Electrical Engineering 
Electrical Engineering, Laboratory 
Factory Construction 
Foundations 
Machine Tool Work 



Second Term 
Machine Design 
Power Plant Design 
General Engineering, Lectures on 

Aeronautics 
Engineering, Laboratory 
Hydraulic Engineering 
Refrigeration 
Heating and Ventilation 
Industrial Management 
Machine Tool Work 
Thesis 



Options 
Engine Design 
Locomotive Engineering 
Mill Engineering 
Steam Turbine Engineering 



COOPERATIVE ENGINEERING EDUCATION 

(To supplement page 30) 

One of the most successful engineering schools of college grade, 
the University of Cincinnati, has developed a cooperative plan of 
education by which the student alternates between practical work 
and laboratory and classroom work. As the name implies the 
cooperative scheme of education consists in cooperation between 



xA APPENDIX 

tit university iz.i : :ruu:-.::i:.i :nzYee:iiz :?zi7.':z:.-.':--z. T1-: 
srzir-zs are i.'.ii ~t: -_— : 5 -.-:-.:: us. Wi^ t -_l r - :5: 5.e-:ii:i 5 
attending the university for two weeks, the aypnd section is 

--".z-z-. 1 ■_; :n zutiiie "uru. E::i stuien: 115 11 L'.:i::r. aid 
::e "::--. eu_y :i;'"r;: ii : iitii i-rd uitii :'_:- 5:. rent: zie-:-e :: ~:rk 
on which both are engaged is completed. 

The freshmen in the case of civil engineers are placed as laborers, 
with railroads or track-work, with construction companies, work- 
iuz :.5 i^rtoenters. m :. : —— :e ".5 . eto. Tie ~- : - — - — 
Ftuditf :r:::v : is "eel zeiti y: 1: ur. 11: :le usizi ; 2.7 ii : 
twenty to thirty :enti r-e: l:ur. Tlii luni :•: - ■.:'_■; :> : ;nti 
inte tleir s-e-imi year. 11 :i rreuuentiy Lire nil: ut tleir >r: 
in :r£e: t: yz-e lie siuieuti a variety :: exr-erience I: tley —-,'•-- 
_ : : : tley are ZTiniitel in tie t'uiri ant :: urui v:-ar= te rositlis 
:: tuueke^rs." ruateria: :ie:ls. :ti 5 ibfireuien. In tie rlurtu 
: .:". . irtl "ears tie" are u.vei nr eater test insi : ilru : . . are ria ie 



a :e~ exeeiti:n- 



COLLEGE GRADE EVENING INDUSTRIAL COURSES 

T: rattle-eat ;a.re 5-5 

Tezz ::1:~ utz evenuiz nurses :: ::leze z~aue are iztez.irt t: 
brizzz tie syszenzati: rruzv :•: size — itliu tie reali :: ~:~z 
mei t-1; are ::l:~ini inzuszriai pursuits aiz desire z: It tlezi- 
s-eivrs ::: lizler to:siti:zs. but z:e uzzabie t: attend : rurses iuriiz 
:iie iav. Tie subjects zz:iuze-z ut tie :: -arses ire ii ::ii:~s 

r-'-rr- F-u -_V:U 'i-.-.'.-i.' :-.l zT.V .—.':.:.: i: - u Mutlezzatizs. 
Plvsizs. 111 Eiene1t.1i" Eieitziut". Eieznents :: Ml lizauzszz 
Dui-nr. 

5:-;; ■--:•":-' _Y-;-' - " i -5f Eiezzez:s 1 Tlerzz:t"uizu:5. 



APPENDIX 205 

Second-Year Electrical Course. Elements of Thermodynamics, 
the Steam Engine and Boilers, Valve Gears, Steam Laboratory, 
Direct Current Machinery, Alternating Currents, Electric Distri- 
bution, Electrical Testing Laboratory, and Laboratory of Dynamo 
Electric Machinery. 

Building Course. First Year. Mathematics, Physics, Elemen- 
tary Electricity, Elements of Mechanism and Drawing, Applied 
Mechanics and Graphic Statics, Steam and Hydraulic Machinery, 
and Heating and Ventilation. Second Year. Materials and 
Testing Materials, Structural Design, Foundations, Electrical 
Machinery, and Electrical Laboratory, Electrical Wiring, Steam 
Laboratory, and Building Laws, Contracts, Sanitation, etc. 

It is the aim to adapt the course to the men for whom the instruc- 
tion is intended, and to include the study of those principles 
with which they are not likely to become familiar in practice, and 
which will give them a fundamental training in those matters that 
will be of the greatest value to them in the work in which they are 
engaged. 

The instruction embraces recitations, lectures, drawing-room 
practice, and laboratory exercises; and is given by members of the 
instructing staff of the day school. Many lectures are fully illus- 
trated by apparatus and experiments. Written tests are given 
from time to time, and problems are assigned for home work at 
nearly every exercise. Textbooks are used in many subjects, but 
in some of the work, where the instruction differs widely from 
available books, printed notes are supplied to the students at cost. 
Students are expected to purchase such textbooks, notebooks, 
instruments, and other material as may be recommended through- 
out the course. 

The scholarship of the students and their ability to continue the 
courses are determined in part by examinations, but considerable 
weight is given to the work of the pupil in the term. Those 
students who fail to keep well up with the work or to profit suffi- 
ciently by the instruction are informed that they are not qualified 
to pursue the course advantageously. Those who complete satis- 
factorily the required courses of the two years and pass the exami- 
nations are given graduate certificates. 

The school year begins the last week of September and continues 
into May. There is a recess of one week at Christmas, and on 
legal holidays the exercises of the school are suspended. Attend- 



206 APPENDIX 

ance from 7.30 to 9.30 for three or four evenings a week is required, 
in addition to outside study. 

To be admitted to the first-year class the applicant must be at 
least eighteen years of age and must pass satisfactorily the entrance 
examinations. These examinations may be, in a measure, of a 
competitive nature, as it is likely that the number of applications 
for admittance will be larger than the capacity of the school. 
Considerable weight will be attached to the applicant's occupation 
and practical experience. The courses are open to those only who 
are ambitious and willing to study and who purpose to complete 
the full course of two years. 

A briefer college course in industrial subjects is offered by the 
School of Science and Technology of Pratt Institute along different 
lines, as follows: (To supplement page 30.) 

First. Day Industrial Courses in Mechanics, Electricity, and 
Chemistry, affording a thorough practical and technical training 
for young men who are ambitious to prepare themselves for leader- 
ship in positions of importance and responsibility in this country's 
expanding industries. 

Second. Day Trade Courses in Machine Work, Carpentry and 
Building, and Tanning, for those who wish practical and theo- 
retical instruction in these trades. 

Third. Evening Technical Courses for those employed during 
the day in mechanical, electrical, and chemical industries and 
related occupations. 

Fourth. Evening Trade Courses for apprentices and journeymen. 

Fifth. Courses for the training of mechanic teachers of trades 
in industrial schools. 

The courses offered are as follows : 

Day Industrial Courses 
Mechanical Industries A two-year course 

Applied Electricity A two-year course ' 

Applied Chemistry A two-year course 

Applied Leather Chemistry A one-year course 

Day Trade Courses 
Machine Construction A one-year course 

Carpentry and Building A one-year course 

Tanning A one-year course 



APPENDIX 207 

The time of students in the day courses is fully occupied with required 
work from 9.10 a.m. to 4.40 p.m. on all week days except Saturday, and 
students as a rule find it necessary to spend several hours each evening in 
preparation for the work of the following day. 

Evening Technical Courses 
Practical Mathematics, first year Strength of Materials 
Practical Mathematics, second year Technical Chemistry 
Practical Electricity first year General Chemistry 

Industrial Physics second year Machine Design 

Industrial Electricity third year Quantitative Analysis 

first year Direct Current Machin- Mechanical Drawing and Machine 

ery and Electrical Design Design 

second year Alternating Current first year Mechanical Drawing 
Machinery and Electrical Design second year Machine Design 
Steam and the Steam Engine third year Mechanism 

Internal Combustion Engine 

Evening Trade Courses 
Carpentry and Building Sheet-Metal Work 

Pattern-Making Sheet-Metal Pattern-Drafting 

Plumbing Machine Work and Tool-Making 

Foundry Practice Forging and Heat Treatment 

Training Course for Mechanic Teachers 

Trade Teaching Elementary Course 

Trade Teaching Advanced Course 

All evening classes are held from 7.30 to 9.30 on Mondays, Wednesday s* 
and Fridays, from September through March. 

TRAINING FOR THE DISTRIBUTING PHASE OF 
INDUSTRY 

(To supplement page 13) 

The training for the productive phase of industry as described 
in the previous pages is in production and skill. This means that 
the emphasis should be on shop training in commercial work rather 
than theory. The training for the distributive phase of industry 
should be somewhat different. In the first place, there are cer- 
tain personal qualifications for a salesman that do not apply 
to the workman. Second, while the salesman knowledge of his 



208 APPENDIX 

product should be thorough, it should be very different from that 
of the mechanic. 

Large corporations usually send their young men, who have at 
least an appreciative knowledge of the trades from a school point 
of view, to the factory for a varying period of time. There is no 
standard method of training in use among the different firms. 
Some require 1 the shop training before the men enter the sales 
offices; others prescribe a short term of office work before the men 
enter the shops. The latter method seems preferable because the 
apprentice salesman learns the methods of doing business, and at 
the end of his office practice knows just what he needs to learn 
while in the shop. 

Any shop training for salesmen should be intensive and not too 
long. The following represents a method of training salesmen 
adopted by one firm: The first few days are spent in becoming 
acquainted with the various officials and the layout of the plant. 
A study is then made of the machines. One principle common to 
all machine tools should be made plain to the student, the power 
applied to the machine is divided into two main branches, the 
driving of the tool or table, as the case may be, and the feeds. 
The apprentice should see that it consists of a revolving table and 
a stationary tool; the rest of the machine consists of a series of 
levers and covered boxes containing numerous gears, clutches, etc. 
Show that the power is traced from the belt or motor through the 
various speed gears and back gears to the pinion which drives the 
table. It is very desirable for the student to sketch these gear 
trains on a pad; the very act of putting a construction on paper 
helps to fix it in one's mind. In the same manner, the feed gearing 
is traced through from where it leaves the drive gearing to the final 
tool movement. If any part of the machine is inaccessible, the 
assembling benches should be visited and the desired part inspected 
in detail. In this way a fairly good understanding of the function 
of each lever and clutch is obtained. Then each machine is taken 
in order. 

The next step is to hold an informal consultation with the 
designer of the tool. With his assistance a number of assembly 
drawings of the machine in question should be selected from the 
files; ordinarily about four or five will be sufficient to show the 
general construction. It is advisable to choose only such drawings 

1 Niles Bement Machine Shop. 



APPENDIX 209 

as will show the various parts of the machine assembled; too many 
detailed drawings are likely to cause confusion. These drawings 
should he gone over carefully with the designer and anything not 
thoroughly understood should be discussed. Blue-prints should 
then be made and kept in the salesman's files for reference. It is 
better to examine the machine before the blue-print, for it is easier 
to see a thing in reality than on paper. 

After the drawings have been studied, it is a good plan for the 
salesman to make a brief tour through the shop with the designer. 
By this means every point discussed in the conference is brought 
home by actual inspection, and the design of the machine is firmly 
fixed in mind. The concentrated study of that machine may now 
be considered as ended, though, from time to time, inspections will 
be made of various types in different stages of erection. Further- 
more, it is an excellent plan for the salesman to have frequent 
chats with the men who operate these machines in different parts 
of the plant. Much valuable information regarding the output, 
mode of operation, and special advantages may be obtained 
from them. This is of service if the salesman's prospect is a " me- 
chanical' ' man, one who is appealed to from the operator's view- 
point. 

The apprentice salesman should cultivate the acquaintance of 
the workmen, foremen, and designers, as well as other officials. 
The ability to get along with workmen is a very important quality. 
Salesmen come in contact with them, and they should know how 
to correct a false idea instead of displaying any superior knowledge. 

After a machine has been studied in the foregoing manner, it is 
a good plan for the salesman to accompany the inspector on his 
final tests. Much can be learned from him. He usually has had 
extensive experience and possesses a veritable storehouse of anec- 
dote and history concerning various machines and their develop- 
ment. 

The same plan is followed with each machine, although as the 
apprentice salesman becomes more experienced he can carry on the 
study of two or even three machines simultaneously. Along with 
his practical training the salesman should keep up an extensive 
technical reading in all lines. A knowledge of present conditions 
and the trend of improvement and development in his field are of 
great importance. A further aid is the inspection of any outside 
plants within convenient distance. On these visits the salesman 



210 APPENDIX 

becomes acquainted with the conditions which his machines have 
to meet, the methods of manufacture, and the requirements upon 
the machine-tool builder. He also learns the demands of the 
users of machine tools. He should transmit this information to 
his shops, and if he suggests any improvement of value, it should 
be carried out. Frequently, though, a salesman will offer a ma- 
chine with certain attachments which are of little service to the 
user, but are a source of trouble to build. Therefore the sales- 
man should know his machines thoroughly, and also his own 
factory conditions so that he can guide the purchaser in his 
demands. 

One of the largest concerns in the iron and steel trade believes 
that high-salaried executive officers may be as much benefited by 
a course of industrial training as the ordinary 7 employee who is 
tending a machine, or a salesman, and has established a school for 
training executives. The students in this school are from forty to 
sixty years of age, and the average age is fifty -two. The course 
of instruction includes shop practice, administration, and theory. 
The course of instruction extends over six weeks, during which time 
the students give their entire time to the school work. Their sala- 
ries continue as usual during this time, and their traveling expenses 
in visiting different works of the company during the course are 
paid. The cost of the school apart from these items is about 
$35,000 per annum. The usual routine is to spend a forenoon in 
the shop and the afternoon in attending lectures, while the evening 
is devoted to the study of textbooks. The students are given 
examinations at stated intervals, and their markings in the exami- 
nations are sent to the head office of the company. 

INDUSTRIAL COURSES OF SECONDARY GRADE IN A 
GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY 

(To supplement page 32) 

r The aim of the Industrial Course is to prepare students as fully 
as possible for definite industrial occupations. 

In the course of instruction for boys practical shop-work and 
mechanical drawing are emphasized and much time is devoted to 
them. Adequate attention is also given to necessary academic 
subjects, including English, mathematics, and science. In the 
first two years the shop-work is general and fundamental, and in- 



APPENDIX 



211 



eludes wood-working, pattern-making, foundry practice, forging, 
machine work, the use and care of tools and machines, qualities 
of materials and their production, and a study of the fundamental 
principles of construction. All the work is educative as well as 
practical. At the end of the second year, if the pupil exhibits 
special ability in any direction, he may be permitted to specialize 
along this line, in order that he may be the better fitted for the 
industrial career which he desires. In these courses the required 
academic work is closely related to the industrial work. The 
courses in the day school will include six hours, divided into seven 
periods. 



Industrial Course for Boys * 



Periods 

Grade 9A (1st Year) 
Required : 

Applied Mathematics . 4 

English 5 

Elementary Science 4 

Wood-work 8 

Forging 4 

Mechanical Drawing. . . 6 



Points Periods Points 
Grade 10B (2d Year) 
Required: 

4 Applied Mathematics. 4 4 

5 English 4 4 

4 Industrial History 4 4 

4 Pattern-Making 6 3 

2 Foundry Practice .... 6 3 

3 Mechanical Drawing. . 6 3 



Grade 9B (1st Year) 
Required: 

Applied Mathematics . 4 4 

English 5 5 

Elementary Service. ... 4 4 

Wood-work 6 3 

Machine Shop Practice. 6 3 

Mechanical Drawing. . . 6 3 

Grade 10A (2d Year) 
Required: 

Applied Mathematics . 4 4 

English 4 4 

Industrial History 4 4 

Pattern-Making 6 3 

Foundry Practice 6 3 

Mechanical Drawing. . . 6 3 



Grade 11 A (3d Year) 
Required: 

English 4 

Physics 5 

Mechanical Drawing. . 6 

Carpentry or 12 

Cabinet-Making, or . . 12 
Pattern-Making, or. . . 12 
Foundry Practice, or. . 12 
Machine-Shop Prac- 
tice, or 12 6 

Printing 12 6 

Grade 11B (3d Year) 
Required : 

English 4 4 

Industrial History 4 4 



1 From Course of Study, Dickinson High School, Jersey City, N.J. 



21: 



APPENDIX 



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APPENDIX 213 

Periods Periods 

Grade 10A (2d Year) Grade 10B (2d Year) 

Required: Required: 

Carpentry, or 10 Carpentry, or 18 

Cabinet-Making, or 18 Cabinet-Making, or 18 

Pattern-Making and Foun- Pattern-Making and Foun- 
dry Practice, or 18 dry Practice, or 18 

Machine-Shop Practice, or.. 18 Machine-Shop Practice, or.. 18 

Printing 18 Printing 18 

Mechanical Drawing 6 Mechanical Drawing 6 

Shop Problems 4 Shop Problems 4 

English, including Selected English, including Selected 
Readings, relating to In- Readings, relating to In- 
dustries and Civics 4 dustries and Civics 4 

COOPERATIVE HIGH-SCHOOL COURSE 

(To supplement page 35) 

An excellent part-time system of education of high-school grade 
is seen in the Fitchburg Cooperative High-School Course. Fitch- 
burg is a manufacturing city of about 40,000 inhabitants, with 
various types of industries. These manufacturers have felt the 
need for a long time of technically trained boys of high-school 
training. One of the successful manufacturers in the city heard 
Professor Schneider describe his part-time engineering school one 
evening and he was impressed with the simplicity and practi- 
cability of the plan, and judged that such a scheme could be 
adapted to high-school students who wished to learn a trade and 
continue their education at the same time. 

A committee was appointed from the different manufacturers to 
consider the advisability of such a plan in the local high school. 
The committee reported a plan for a combination shop and school 
course, offering the use of their shops for the practical instruction 
of apprentices if the school would provide the necessary academic 
instruction. The school committee agreed to this plan and many 
manufacturers entered into the agreement. 

The course outlined is of four years' duration, the same as the 
regular high-school course. The first year is spent wholly in the 
school and the next three years in the shop and school — one week 
in the shop and one week in the school. In order to carry out this 
scheme the manufacturers take boys in pairs so that by alternating 
they have one of the pair always at work, and likewise the school 
is provided with one of the pair. 



214 APPENDIX 

The Fitchburg scheme of industrial education was put into 
operation August 1, 1908, with twenty-two people, eleven in the 
shop and eleven in the school. The parents agree that the boy will 
stay at this work for three years, and the manufacturer on his part 
agrees to teach him the various branches of the trade designated 
in the agreement. In order to make this binding the parents must 
file a bond of fifty dollars. 

Each Saturday morning the boy who has been at school that 
week goes to the shop in order to get hold of the job his mate is 
working on, and be ready to take it up Monday morning when the 
shop-boy goes to school for a week. When there is a vacation 
week in school, work is provided in the shop, so that the boy does 
not loaf around the streets. The shop-work consists in instruction 
in the operation of lathes, planes, drilling machines, bench and 
floor work, and other machine work. The school-work is twenty 
weeks a year. Since it is such a short course only such subjects 
are taught as are of practical value to the student in the pursuit 
of a livelihood. The regular courses of high-school study were 
discarded, precedent ignored, and a new course of study made out. 

One great objection to cooperative part-time work in high school 
is the fact that the vast majority of pupils enter the distributing, 
rather than the productive, branch of trade life. 

One of the best examples of the successful operation of a part- 
time system of education of intermediate school type is the Beverly 
Industrial School. 

Beverly is a small manufacturing city with one very large indus- 
try, the manufacture of shoe machinery by the United Shoe 
Machinery Company. The school authorities and this large cor- 
poration have entered into an agreement to furnish industrial 
education to young men between the ages of fourteen and twenty- 
five. Briefly, the plan of cooperation is the following : 

A separate department is organized in the factory of the United 
Shoe Machinery Company and equipped with all necessary 
machine tools for the accommodation of twenty-five boys at one 
time. Two groups of twenty-five alternate between the factory 
and the schoolhouse. The company furnishes all materials and 
keeps the accounts and purchases the product at established prices. 
The company makes up the deficit between the earnings of the 
practice shop as shown by the accounts and the cost of mainte- 
nance of the practice shop including the salary of the instructors 



APPENDIX ' 215 

"while in the shop. The hiring of the shop instructor or foreman 
and the management of the shop are in the hands of the School 
Committee on Industrial Education. This committee provides 
in the school instruction in shop mathematics, including the use 
of micrometers and other instruments of precision, mechanics, 
chemistry of the different kinds of materials used in the factory, 
free-hand sketches with dimension blue-print reading, mechanical 
drawing, English, civics, industrial economics, business forms and 
practice. The excellent laboratories and other equipment of the 
high school are available for the use of the industrial school after- 
noons and evenings and a portion of another school is used in the 
forenoons, as required. In this way excellent buildings and equip- 
ment are used at no additional cost to the city of Beverly and the 
cost of maintenance is reduced to a minimum. No pupil, how- 
ever, is bound by any agreement or indenture to continue to the 
end of any course. The only entrance requirements for a boy are 
that he shall have attained the age of fourteen years and shall have 
completed satisfactorily the sixth grade, at least, in the public 
elementary schools or an equivalent. The requirements of a 
pupil remaining in the school are satisfactory conduct and a reason- 
able degree of proficiency in his work. The greater stress is laid 
on the shop-work in case of doubt. 



DAY INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL 

(To supplement page 33) 

The following trades are usually taught in a day industrial 
school: 

Carpentry Mechanical draftsman 

Architectural draftsman Electrician 

Cabinet-maker Engineer 

Machinist Automobile repairing 

Carpentry. The course providing training for the trade of car- 
penter consists of shop practice and science, study of building 
materials, architectural drawing, mathematics, English, and civics. 

Architectural draftsman. This course differs from the carpenter's 
course in having much of the shop-work replaced by work in the 
drafting-room, on building construction. 

Cabinet-making. This course differs from the carpenter's course 



216 APPENDIX 

in having more time devoted to office furniture, etc., than to the 
building trade work. 

Machinist. This course, in addition to English and civics, in- 
cludes machine-shop work, the mathematics underlying machine- 
shop work, study of materials, drawing, and some work in steam 
and electricity. The shop-work consists of practice in the usual 
operations common to machine-shop work. 

Mechanical draftsman. The mechanical draftsman's course is 
similar to the machinist's course with much less shop-work, and 
more practice in the drawing-room on machine-shop work. 

Electrician. This course deals with practical and theoretical 
electricity, and includes electric wiring, building motors, winding 
armatures, testing and repairing circuits, and practical experience 
in the electric power station, etc. In addition there is special 
mathematics applied to electrical work, and English and civics 
is also taught. 

Engineer. This course deals with the theory and practice of 
steam work. It includes in addition English and civics, some 
machine-shop practice, and mathematics. 

Automobile repairing. The automobile repairing course usually 
consists of work similar to that of the machinist's course, with 
special shop-work on the automobile and the study of its operation. 

MILLWRIGHTING 

In every manufacturing community there is a demand in the 
factories for a type of millwright, or "handy man," who is able 
to do rough carpentry and pattern-making, general repair machine 
work, take care of belts and gears, motors and dynamos, do paint- 
ing and glazing, and electrical wiring of a rough character. This 
work does not demand the skill of a tool-maker or cabinet-maker, 
and will appeal to the boy of ordinary mechanical ability. 

Course of Study (Two years) 

Time 
Allotment 
English, history, civics, etc.; shop mathematics, sketching and 

blue-print working 20 per cent 

Laboratory practice and observation of the following subjects: 
Concrete and masonry, applied chemistry and physics, 
hydraulics and plumbing; general knowledge, rather than 
specific ability is required in these subjects 30 per cent 



APPENDIX 217 

Shop practice in the following subjects: Rough carpentry and 
pattern-making, general repair machine work, care of belts 
and gears, care of motors and dynamos, and electrical wiring 
of a rough character, painting, glazing, and plumbing 50 per cent 

Method of teaching. The method of teaching must be based 
upon the existence of a maintenance problem in a factory. Some 
work of this kind can, no doubt, be found in every school, and in 
order to make the work efficient it is probable that some outside 
sources of supply can be found. Arrangements should be made 
to let the boys work on a part-time basis in a factory, or have them, 
one at a time, spend some time in a factory or mill. In order to 
secure the highest degree of correlation it is desirable that the 
first-year shop-work should be based upon the project method; 
that during the second year, so far as practicable, the technical 
work be separated from the shop-work and handled upon a labo- 
ratory basis. Correlation should be carried out as far as possible. 

Machine-shop work. Repair machine work differs from the 
regular production work chiefly in the lack of special machines in 
equipment, and in the fact that the machinists usually go with 
their jobs from machine to machine. In many cases' the equip- 
ment is either inadequate or antiquated, and the machinists have 
to exercise considerable ingenuity in doing their work with the 
means at their disposal. These conditions should be duplicated 
as nearly as possible in the shop-work of this course. The course 
should include such work as ordinary operations on the sensitive 
and heavy duty drill press, milling, plain and simple index milling, 
including the cutting of plain gears, plain shaper work and con- 
siderable lathe work, including work on the cutting lathe. 

Blacksmithing. This work could be adequately carried through 
with one or two small portable forges placed in the machine shop. 
Work of this kind should include brazing and some hardening and 
tempering. 

Electrical work. The electrical work should include a study of 
the gross anatomy of the dynamo and motor. The pupils should 
learn the names and functions of parts, assemble and disassemble 
motors, and should become familiar with method of control, revers- 
ing, starting, etc., low tension work with number 18 wire; the usual 
series of board problems can be worked out with bells, annuncia- 
tors, etc. Practice should be given in wiring, exposed wiring of the 
mill type, including drilling in concrete and masonry, and some 



218 APPENDIX 

work with conduits, connecting up dynamos and motors according 
to the instructions furnished with these machines. House-wiring, 
as distinguished from mill-wiring, should not be attempted to any 
extent. Maintenance work on interior circuits, including mainte- 
nance and simple repairs on dynamos and motors, should also be 
included. Considerable practical work can be found in the school 
itself. This can be supplemented by outside work through cooper- 
ation of the mills or from the school department. 

Carpentry work. Carpentry work should be of the character 
required of the mill machinist. The boy should carry the job 
through, both at the bench and, so far as safety permits, at the 
machines. Work should be entirely in the cheaper woods and 
should not call for a high degree of accuracy or finish. The follow- 
ing subjects should be covered in the course : butt, lap, and half -lap 
joint (no dovetailing); putting up rough partitions and floors; 
building stagings and scaffoldings, boxes and trucks. The aim 
is to turn out a comparatively rough, handy carpenter, and not a 
cabinet-maker; hence furniture-making should not be included. 

Steam piping. The object of this work should be to turn out a 
mechanic who can cut the ordinary iron piping and who knows 
how to cut threads so as to make a tight joint, working from a 
sketch plan. It should include the use of the hack saw, the cold 
chisel, hand dies for threading, and the operations of making up 
a threaded and union joint with different types of valves, elbows, 
tees, etc. This work cannot very well be done on an exercise basis 
and therefore should be included in the shop-work, because the 
only way to test the job is by putting steam into it. 

Pattern-making. The mill machinist is often called upon to 
make simple patterns, mainly where a piece of repair work is needed. 
For example, a gear breaks and a simple pattern is made from the 
broken gear, sent to a local foundry, and the casting is made in the 
machine shop. Usually the important factor here is time, rather 
than extreme care in the waste of iron. Solid patterns and simple 
core patterns cover all the demands of this course. These patterns 
should be made in the cheap wood, without extreme regard to 
accuracy. Instruction should include the use of the shrink rule 
for iron and brass, and provision should be made for the boy who 
has made the pattern to visit the factory so that he will understand 
the process of making the mold. 

Painting and glazing. The aim of this work is merely to turn 



APPENDIX 219 

out a worker who can set an ordinary pane o! glass. Instruction 
would therefore include removing broken glass, cleaning out the 
putty and old tacks, putting in the new glass, tacking and putty- 
ing the work. 

Concrete and masonry. Concrete: Mixing, control of properties 
of concrete by changing the ingredients, good and bad mixtures 
for different purposes, pouring, setting, forming, dressing, etc., 
making paths, concrete forms of different kinds, as opportunity 
offers. Masonry: Brick, hollow, tile, etc., laying, binding, arching, 
taking down old brick-work, the laying to line of masonry, mortar, 
the ingredients of mortar, control, conditions affecting settling, 
etc. This work should be largely laboratory in character, follow- 
ing the lines of the New York Trade School, where work of this 
kind is first set up and then torn down. This should be supple- 
mented by some construction work. 

Engines and boilers. The aim of this course is to acquaint the 
pupil, in a general way, with the construction, operation, and 
function of steam units. This should include a general knowl- 
edge of names and functions of parts, and of the slide-valve en- 
gine, the cross-compound engine, functions of accessories, such as 
feed pumps, injectors, gauge-glasses, steam gauges, ash-pits, differ- 
ent types of boilers, etc. Laboratory study along these lines can 
be carried on with a large number of materials secured from the 
junk heap and fitted for this purpose through the melting out of 
certain parts, so as to include the insides. In addition, a study of 
the gas engine should be included. 

Drawing. The aim of this course is to give some degree of 
familiarity with reading all sorts of plans — piping plans, electrical 
wiring plans, machine-shop blue-prints, carpentry plans, plumbing 
plans, etc.; (1) exercises in reading simple plans of all the above; 

(2) exercises in sketching layouts, especially where the pupil is 
required to trace out a circuit, electrical, steam, or plumbing, etc.; 

(3) elements of mechanical drawing, simple work in the use of 
instruments and projections. 

Trade mathematics. This course should include elementary 
instruction in rough trade methods of computing material, such as 
lumber, brick, concrete, time, cost, etc., as given in Vocational 
Mathematics. J 

Applied science. Applied science may be taught on a labo- 

1 See Vocational Mathematics, by W. H. Dooley. 



220 APPENDIX 

ratory basis, with practical demonstrations. It should include 
a rather general knowledge of a number of the simpler facts of 
physics and chemistry as applied to trades, such as the effect of 
temperature upon material, expansion, contraction, melting, boil- 
ing, distillation; a little study of light, based upon the taking of 
photographs, properties of metals, etc., and a notion of the terms 
used in hydraulics, such as "head of water," "water flow," etc., 
which should be based upon a study of the local water supply sys- 
tem. Pupils should be taught to explain practical questions, such 
as why concrete sets; how a furnace is built to give good combus- 
tion; what makes steam pressure; how it is controlled; what makes 
a dry boiler burst; how a fusible plug works, why a saw-tooth roof 
is used on a weave shed to get good light; how electric lights are 
laid out in order to give proper illumination, etc. 1 

SECONDARY DAY INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 

The following are the departments and courses of study in the 
day work of the Holyoke Vocational School: 

Department of Carpentry and Building 
First Year 

Shop Practice Trade English ' 

Trade Mathematics Trade Drawing 

(About 80 per cent on shop floor) 
Applied English Hygiene 

Applied Mathematics Physical Training 

(About 20 per cent classroom) 

Second Year 
Shop Practice Trade English 

Trade Mathematics Trade Drawing 

Trade Science Shop Management 

Trade Hygiene 

(From 50 to 60 per cent shop-work) 
English Mathematics 

Civics Industrial History 

Hygiene Physical Training 

(From 40 to 50 per cent classroom) 

1 See Applied Science for Metal-Workers and Wood-Workers, by W. H. 
Dooley. 



APPENDIX 221 

Third Year 

Shop Practice Shop Drawing 

Shop Mathematics Shop Management 

(From 50 to 60 per cent shop-work) 

English Literature Mathematics 

Citizenship Industrial History 

Hygiene Physical Training 

(From 40 to 50 per cent classroom) 

Fourth Year {first half) 

Shop Practice Shop Mathematics 

(50 per cent shop- work) 

English Drawing 

Mathematics Hygiene 

Mechanics Physical Training 

(50 per cent classroom) 

Fourth Year {second half) 
The apprentice enters the trade. A record of his work is kept. This 
record becomes a part of the complete trade record of the boy. 

Department of Machine-shop Practice 

First Year 

Shop Practice Trade Mathematics 

Trade English Trade Drawing 

Shop Management Trade Hygiene 

(80 per cent shop-work) 

Applied Mathematics Hygiene 

Applied English Physical Training 

(20 per cent classroom) 

Second Year 

Shop Practice Trade English 

Trade Mathematics Trade Hygiene 

Trade Science Shop Management 

(50 to 60 per cent shop-work) 

Applied English Industrial History 

Applied Mathematics Citizenship 

Hygiene Physical Training 

General Mechanical Drawing 

(40 to 50 per cent classroom) 



222 APPENDIX 

Third Year 
Shop Practice Trade English 

Trade Mathematics Trade Science 

Shop Management Trade Hygiene 

(50 to 60 per cent shop-work) 
English Literature Mathematics 

Citizenship Industrial History 

Hygiene Physical Training 

General Mechanical Drawing 
(40 to 50 per cent classroom) 

Fourth Year (first half) 

Shop Practice Related Trade Subjects 

(50 per cent shop-work) 
English Mathematics 

Science Drawing 

Hygiene Physical Training 

(50 per cent classroom) 

Fourth Year (second half) 
The apprentice enters the trade and the record is kept of his work. 

Department of Pattern-Making 
First Year 
Shop Practice Trade English 

Moulding Trade Drawing 

Core-Making Shop Management 

Trade Mathematics 

(80 per cent shop-work) 
Applied English Hygiene 

Applied Mathematics Physical Training 

(20 per cent classroom) 

Second Year 
Shop Practice Trade English 

Trade Mathematics Trade Hygiene 

Shop Management Materials 

(50 to 60 per cent shop-work) 
Applied English Industrial History 

Applied Mathematics Citizenship 

Hygiene Physical Training 

General Mechanical Drawing 
(40 to 50 per cent classroom) 



APPENDIX 223 

Third Year 
Shop Practice Trade English 

Trade Mathematics Trade Science 

Shop Management Trade Hygiene 

(50 to 60 per cent shop-work ) 
English Mathematics 

Citizenship Industrial History 

Hygiene Physical Training 

General Mechanical Drawing 

v (40 to 50 per cent classroom) 

Fourth Year (first half) 
Shop Practice Related Trade Subjects • 

(50 per cent shop-work) 
English Mathematics 

Science Drawing 

Hygiene Physical Training 

(50 per cent classroom) 

Fourth Year (second half) 
The apprentice enters the trade. A record is kept of his work which 
becomes a part of the completed trade record of the boy. 

Printing 
First Year 
Shop- Work Trade English 

(1) Composition Trade Drawing 

(2) Press-Work Trade Hygiene 
Trade Mathematics 

(80 per cent shop-work) 
Applied English Civics 

Applied Mathematics Hygiene and Physical Training 

(20 per cent classroom) 

Second Year 
Shop Practice Trade English 

Trade Mathematics Trade Hygiene 

Materials of Trade Trade Design 

(50 to 60 per cent shop-work) 
Applied English Applied Mathematics 

Citizenship Industrial History 

Hygiene Physical Training 

(40 to 50 per cent classroom) 



224 APPENDIX 

Third Year 
Shop Practice Trade English 

Trade Mathematics Trade Science 

Materials of Trade Trade Hygiene 

(50 to 60 per cent shop-work) 
English (Literature) Mathematics 

Citizenship Industrial History 

Hygiene Physical Training 

English Composition 

(40 to 50 per cent classroom) 

Fourth Year {first half) 

Shop Practice Related Trade Subjects 

(50 per cent shop-work) 
English Mathematics 

Printing Design Hygiene 

Physical Training 
(50 per cent classroom) 

Fourth Year (second half) 

The apprentice enters the trade. A record of his work is kept. This 
record becomes a part of the complete trade record of the boy. 

SHORT UNIT COURSES 

(To supplement page 56) 

Unit courses should be very specific. To illustrate: A course 
in any branch of cotton manufacture should not be simply cotton 
manufacture, but divided into units as follows: 

Carding and Spinning Department 1 

Picking and Carding — one year, two evenings a week. 
Combing — one year, two evenings a week. 
Drawing and Roving Frames — one year, two evenings a week. 
Ring Spinning and Twisting — one year, two evenings a week. 
Mule Spinning — one year, two evenings a week. 
Cotton sampling — one term, two evenings a week. 
Advanced Calculations in Carding and Spinning — one year, one evening 
a week. 

1 From Course of Study, Bradford Durfee Textile School, Fall River, 
Mass. 



APPENDIX 225 

Weaving and Warp Preparation Departments 
Spooling, Warping and Slashing — one term, two evenings a week. 
Plain Weaving and Fixing — one year, two evenings a week. 
Fancy Weaving and Fixing — one year, two evenings a week. 
Weaving and Fixing (French Class) — one year, two evenings a week. 
Weaving and Fixing (Portuguese Class) — one year, two evenings a week. 
Advanced Calculations in Weaving — one year, one evening a week. 

i Designing Department 

Elementary Designing and Cloth Construction — one year, three eve- 
nings a week. 

Advanced Designing and Cloth Construction — one year, three evenings 
a week. 

Jacquard Designing — one year, two evenings a week. 

Knitting Department 
Special Knitting — one year, two evenings a week. , 

Smaller units may be formed as follows: 

Unit Course on Motors and Generators in the Electrical 

Trade with Dates 

Jan. 5th. Lesson I. 

Organization of class. General ex- Jan - 26 th. Lesson VII. 

planationoftopicsin the course. Alternating current motors 

(continued). 

Jan. 10th. Lesson II. ¥ Q1 T T7TTT 

, , .. „ j , Jan. 31st. Lesson VIII. 

Magnetism. Permanent and elec- M t t hi 

tro-magnets. _ -.. 

1. Direct current. 

Jan. 12th. Lesson III. (a) Location. 

Principles of solenoid. (b) Remedies. 

Rules of thumb. Feb 2d Lesson IX> 

Jan. 17th. Lesson IV. Motor troubles. 

Electrical units. 2. Alternating current. 

1. Volt, ampere, watt, ohm. ( a ) Location. 

2. Ohms law. (b) Remedies. 

Jan. 19th. Lesson V. Feb. 7th. Lesson X. 

Direct current motors. Motor application. 

Jan. 24th. Lesson VI. Feb. 0th. If son XI , 

Alternating current motors. Motor application (continued). 

1. Single phase. Feb. 14th. Lesson XII. 

2. Polyphase. Motor wiring. 



226 APPENDIX 

Group of Unit Courses for Carpenters ' 
Course I. House framing 

a. Based or balloon frame construction 

b. Framing joists around chimney stair and other openings 

Course II. Roof construction 

a. Figuring length of 

1. Hips 3. Common 

2. Valleys .^ 4. Jacks 

b. Steel square or graphic method 

c. Roofs over bays 

Course III. Stair-building 

a. How to lay out story rod f . Winding stairs " 

b. Pitch board - g. Open and closed stairs 

c. Proportioning treads and risers h. Newelled stairs 

d. Rough stair stringer i. Hand-railing 

e. Platform stairs j. Spandrel 

Course IV. Inside finish 

a. Door and window construction d. Construction of mantels 

b. Wainscotting e. Construction of china closets 

c. Hanging doors 

Group of Unit Courses in Drawing for Carpenters ] 
Course I. Blue-print reading 
a. Detail sketching b. Billing of material 

Course II. Making full-size detail layout for mill work 

Note. — This work f will be confined to inside finish. 
The following points will be covered: 

a. Beamed ceilings * c. China closets 

b. Mantels d. Stair work 

Course III. Drawing and tracing for carpenters 

Note. — This course is intended to teach carpenters how to make draw- 
ings for their own use in the trade. It will cover the following points: 

a. Small structures b. Alterations 

1. Garages ' 1. Additions 

2. Storehouses, etc. 2. Store and office work 



APPENDIX 227 

Short Unit Courses in Fine Cabinet-Making 

1. Drafting. How to make working drawings. Use of scale drawings. 
Geometry applied to wood-work. 

2. Laying out rods. Their object. Preparation of cutting lists. 

3. Mouldings and their application. 

4. Mitering and halving of angles. Mitering of curved and straight 
moulding. Principles to be observed around unusual angles. 

5. Veneering. Preparation of grounds. Veneering with cauls; hammer 
method. Treatment of veneers. Veneering shaped surfaces. To 
apply tortoise shell treatment of celluloid and metal inlay. Making 
of fancy banding lines in circular work. 

6. General construction of fine cabinet work, including: sideboards, 
dining-tables, gate-leg tables, center tables, sectional bookcases, 
bureaus, rolltop desks, writing-tables, china cabinets, corner cabinets, 
card- tables, bedsteads. 

7. Showcases. Air-tight construction. 

8. Orders of architecture. Dimensions of the classic orders of architec- 
ture applied to cabinet-work. 

9. Paneling. Construction and fixing of paneling. 

10. Styles. Characteristics of English and French styles. Suitable 
details for each period. 

Unit Courses in Machine-Shop Practice 

Course I. Making fits 

a. Straight-bore fit c. Tight and running fit 

b. Straight-turn fit d. Shrink and force fit 

Course II. Screw-cutting 

a. V-thread d. Grinding tools 

b. Square thread e. Setting tools 

c. Acme thread f . Change gears and manipulation of machine 

Course III. Lathe-work 

a. Lathe-work on tool-making 

b. Making of taps, reamers, and cutters 

c. Use of the taper, backing off and relieving attachment 

Course IV. Milling Machine 
a. Spiral work on cutters b. Bevel gearing 

Course V. General milling machine work 

a. Taps c. Cutters 

b. Reamers d. Use of dividing head 



APPENDIX 




c. F'i li i ml grinding 

- ~ .:. . .-. _: l_ 



: . - . 






Lil ill; Ilr-LlI-li 



i_''i - _i r 



trade extension course in ilzcitJCity 

Z hri led into onita — 
Each unit is conducted twice a week for eight weeks. 
1. Electricity and magnetism. 
I Batteries." 

3 Blue-print reading and drawing for electricians. 
1 Electrical circuits. 

5 . Direct current generators. 

6. Direct current motors. 

7. Inside wiring for light and power. 

S Mr'r7E 77 1 77i7r: tcST.™* 

9. Power plant operation. 

10. Alternating current generators. 

11. Transformers. 

1£L Alternating current motors. 

Four courses can be carried on at one time. 



TRADE EXTENSION COURSES 

U-77 1 ; 77 >ZS 7 ■ 7 177 TT777 DeSSGW 

Eld " :^t " xatinml School) 
a. Cotton b. Sk c. Wool 



APPENDIX 229 

Course II. Weave formation 
a. Use of design b. Construction of c. Foundation weaves 

paper weaves 

Course III. Twill weaves 
a. Regular twill weaves b. Effect of color on plain and twill weaves 

Course IV. Calculations for yam 
a. Cotton b. Spun silk c. Wool and worsted 

Course V. Fancy twill weaves — Reduction and drafting of weaves 
a. Reducing weaves b. Drawing in drafts c. Harness chain drafts 

Course VI. Fabric analysis 
a. Cloth calculations 

Warp preparation and weaving will be taken up with work in textile design 
as a means of demonstrating and developing instruction in weave forma- 
tion. 

Loom-fixing 

1. Setting-up of looms 

2. Leveling of looms 

3. Timing of loom parts 

4. Setting-up of plain and fancy weaves 

5. Remedying defects in weaving 

6. Instructions on automatic looms 

7. Loom-fixing in general 

Unit Courses in Printing 
(Holyoke Vocational School) 

Composition 
Course I. Book composition 

1. Justification 5. Tabular work 

2. Division of words a. Two or more columns justified 

3. Proof-reader's marks . in one measure 

4. Paragraphs and indention b. With rules and box heads 

Course II. Special composition 

A. Newspaper advertising 

B. Book and job advertising 

Business cards, tickets, programs, booklets, title-pages, letter- 
heads, billheads, statements, etc. 



230 



APPENDIX 



Course EH. Imposition 

a. For job press 

b. For cylinder press 

Margins, register 
Hand and machine folds 



Paper and cardboard in printing 
Finish 
Weight 
Adaptability 
Trade Customs 



Course IT. Estimating 
a. The individual job 
Casting up copy 
Cost of composition 
Cost of press-work 
Cost of binding 
Cost of shipping 
Cost of stock 
Profit 
Costs in detail 



b. Composition and press-work 
Labor 

Productive and non-productive time 
Supervision 
Interest in investment 
Depreciation 



General overhead : 

Telephone, supplies, rent, etc. 



Press-work 



Course I. Press-feeding 

1. Handling paper 

2. Laying printed sheets 

Course II. Elementary press- work 

1. Patching up 

2. Marking out 

Course EH. Advanced press-work 

1. Making plates type-high 

2. Cutting overlays 



3. Keeping color on job 



3. Putting on overlay 

4. Putting on underlay 

3. How to place a cut overlay 



Course IV. Printing-inks 

1. Mixin g colors 

2. What inks are best suited to different stocks 

3. When and how to use varnishes, dryers, and reducers 

Course V. Embossing 

1. How to make ready 3. Kalsomine method 

2. Wax method 4. Glass method 

Steam E>"GixEEBrN~G Courses 
(Holyoke Vocational School) 
Course I. Boilers and Accessories 



Heads 



Dry sheet 
Settings 



APPENDIX 



231 



2. Closing in line 
Grates i 

Bridge walls 
Combination chamber 
Back connections 
Fire bricks and their use 



Damper 
Regulators 

6. Connecting boilers in batteries 
Thickness of fires 
Steam gauges 



3. 



Furnace mouths 

Blow-off pipes 

Nozzles 

Hand-holes 

Man-holes 

Braces 



7. Steam traps and their uses 
How to take care of them 

8. Reducing valves 
Foaming in boilers 
Sediment and its effect 



Check-valves 
Feed-pipes 
Fusible plugs 
Safety-valves 
Water column 



5. Bagging and blisters 
Injectors 
Inspirators 

Course II. 

1. Heating system , 

a. Direct 

b. Indirect 

c. Combined system, 

2. Feed water heaters 

a. Open heaters 

b. Closed heaters 

c. Economizers 

3. Stock, the proper size for dif- 

ferent capacity 

4. Circulation of steam 

a. Return traps 

b. Ahvvalves ? 

Course IIL 

1. Steam engines 

a. Slide valve 

b. Construction of 

c. Eccentric 

d. Setting valve 



9. Pumps — care and operation 
of same 
Boiler compound 
Scale and its effects 

10. Upright boilers 
Water tubes 
Construction of different types 



5. Pitting in boilers, its cause and 

how to remedy 
To lay up for summer 

6. Inspection of boiler and systems 
Priming in boilers — How to pre- 
vent n 

7. Return pumps s 
Receivers 

8. Draft 

a. Natural 

b. Forced 

c. Induction 

9. Hot-water system 

Double and single pipe system 

2. Green engine 

a. Construction of 

b. Setting valves 

3. Putnam engine 

a. Construction of 

b. Setting valves 



23-2 APPENDIX 

-* F.::i"::: -:r:= b. Cenhifn gaM gww i mnn 

a. C o ns tru c ti on of I;--;: 

b. Valve setting 

5. Corliss enrine 9. Turbines 

a. Construction of a. Vertical 

b. Setting valves b. E:r^i:i: 

6. Er^e r^cns c Misei 

i - us:: .:;.:z ::' 2-iuerent d 

v~^= e. Incpcuse and reaction 

7. Dizceren: tyres ::' xnnecting tyoes 

rod ends 10. Indicators 

S Eir_zr reamers a. Construction of 

i Tb_r:::if rz-em:rs b. How to use 

Course IV 

1. M;:if~::::5 25 scclies t: steam eurmeerin.; 
F.222-222: mi :: 222c 2:2 mc n:rse-co~er ::' mcczatcr 

2. Czmcczm; evazzcratzzn :: ~z-.2er rrzm muzazcr 

5. Ea:i: in 2 ezrcazzszzn :: steam in cylinder 



5. Ecuzieuzy :: imerent emii :: cozier yinzs 

6 X2Z2::5 :: z-~ic-z:iZ2zn 

T Speed :: enriue z-:-rem:rs 

S. B2zrscmu 2nd safe -zrV-f pressure :: boilers 

9. Range :: cut-on c: dineren: zruzes :: 

i; Tdeuse :: slide rule in 
11. 



Unit Cctt.sis ?:?. S~.lv E>-gis"zz3s a>~d Iiezmes 
(Hoiyofae Vocational School) 

Course I. Boilers 

a. Ccnstrurtizn c: din-ren: tyres 

2 - ■: "-- — '- r C22T522UC 2n 2 ~-2_ e ""*" " 7 •" *" C CreSSiire 

Cc-sell. B-ziler az-zesscries 

2 Feed 2222225 d. Boiler compounds 

b. Feed c icing e. Scale and its erects 
c Fee: ~ize: beaters *) 



APPENDIX 233 

Course III 

A. Air compressors 

a. Construction and working of ] 

B. Plain slide-valve engine 

a. Construction and working of t c. Governing 

b. Valve setting d. Indicating 

Course IV. Corliss and automatic engines 

g a. Construction and working of c. Indicating and computing 

different types d. Horse-power 

? b. Valve setting — governing 

Course V 

A. Steam piping 

a. How located c. Covering of 

b. Figuring size for certain work d. Loss from radiation 

B. Steam traps 

a. Where located b. Construction of 

EVENING RECREATIONAL WORK FOR BOYS \ 

(To supplement page 59) 
Recreation and physical education 

a. Personal hygiene 

1. Shower baths 

b. Athletic games 

1. Ringtoss 4. Volley-ball 6. Basket-ball 

2. Tag 5. Hand-ball 7. Dramatic games 

3. Pass-ball 

c. Table games 

1. Checkers 2. Chess, etc. 

MANUAL TRAINING 

(New York State Department of Education) 

(To supplement page 181) 

Seventh Year 

Suggestive outline for bench work in wood 

Projects 

1. Necktie rack 4. Towel roller 

2. T square 5. Broom holder 

3. Drawing board 6. Hatrack 



234 



APPENDIX 



7. Bookrack 


14. Magazine rack 


S. Shoe box 


15. Negative rack 


9. Loom 


16. Printing frame 


10. Stationery holder 


17. Jardiniere stand 


11. v.\ 


IS. Taboret 


12. Flower box 


19. Footstool 


13. Bookshelves 


20. Sled 




Woods 


Pine 


Mahogany 


Oak 


Whitewood 


Ash 


Butternut 


Chestnut 


Beech 


Gumwood 


Sycamore 



Operations 



:s 


1. 


Measuring 




11. 


Gluing 




& 


Lima 2 




12. 


Nailing 




3. 


Placing 




13. 


Screwing 




4. 


Squaring 




14. 


^ arnisainr 




5. 


Gaging 




15. 


She_a ~ •" : ~ r 




6. 


Sawing 




16. 


Scraping 




7. 


Chiseling 




17. 


San aaaaering 




8. 


Bering 




IS. S*air.:~* 




9. 


Gouging 




19. 


Sharpening tools 




10. 


Chamfer planing 




20. 


Grinding 






Eighth Y 


EAE 










Prcj<: J i 




1. 


Serving tray 


11. 


Telephone stand 


& 


Medicine cabinet 


12. 


Telephone chair or stool 


3. 


Taboret 


13. 


Revolving bookrack 


4. 


Umbrella rack 


14. 


L.i - — settee 


0. 


Clothes rack 


1.5. 


^.";rh:e- :h 


6. 


Picture :::ze 


16. 


Wheelbarrow 


s. 


Clair 
Desk 


17. 

IS. 


Hal 


; sea: 




~ s_ ; es 


o. 


Boo 


base 


19. 


Skis 




0. 


Table 


20. 


Yar 


ions articles used in science 



APPENDIX 235 

Also work which involves repairing and "fixing" about the home: 

1. Setting glass 6. Making window screens 

2. Mending furniture joints 7. Making piazza gate 

3. Mending chair backs and seats 8. Making keys from blanks 

4. Repairing pans, etc. 9. Making chicken coop 

5. Wiring electric bells 10. Making brooder 

11. Making incubator 





Woods 


Pine 


Mahogany 


Oak 


White wood (poplar) 


Ash 


Beech 


Gumwood 


Sycamore 


Chestnut 


Black walnut 


Butternut 






Operations 


Processes will be similar to those of the seventh grade with the following 


additional: 




1. Rabbeting 


7. Glass setting 


2. Clamping 


8. Wiring 


3. Doweling 


9. Painting 


4. Beveling 


10. Polishing 


5. Jointing 


11. Caning 


6. Soldering 





HOW TO START TRAINING IN A FACTORY 

(As developed in the Curtiss Aeroplane Company, Buffalo, New York, but 

applicable to any industry, by Frank L. Glynn) 
Establishment 
Survey of plant by 
Conference 
General manager 
Plant manager 
Assistant plant manager 
Breakdown from pay-roll showing relative importance of departments 

Organization 

Director of training 



Reports to 
General manager as to policies 
Plant manager and assistant as to operation • 



236 APPENDIX 

Location 

1. Separate floor space in factory about 60 X 200 feet. 

For the location of such activities as could well be brought together 
as a separate training unit. 

2. Separate floor space in departments, the training for which had best 
be kept in department. 

3. "Tagging" of machine or other shop units for training identification 
when it is necessary to distribute school throughout department and 
have instructor circulate. 

Note: This latter method requires even a more definite control by 
the training director than the other two, as the train in g identification 
is likely to be lost and importance become insignificant. This method 
is least satisfactory and should be resorted to only in exceptional 



Equipment 

The equipment was transferred from the regular production departments 
to the training department. 

Xote: At first there is likely to be objection to this on the part of super- 
intendents and foremen, but it can readily be seen that machines and appli- 
ances must be furnished by them anyway under the usual method of breaking 
in help. 

No diffi culty, however, of this sort was experienced, as those in the 
Curtiss Company fostered and helped the establishment of the work in 
every way. 

Departments of training 

Xote: These fluctuated from week to week according to the needs of the 
production manager based on development or changes in production. 

Each month, however, the employment office furnished the training 
department with an estimate of the help which would probably be required 
for the two ensuing months. 

This formed a basis for the training department to work on, as to the numbers 
and kind of training to be emphasized during that period, and resolved itself 
into the employment office giving the training department an order for help, 
and the employment ma n ager was only too pleased to cooperate in every 
way. 

The departments which have been operative thus far are: 
1. Machine work Drilling 

Screw rnachine Single spindle 

MiEing Double spindle 

Eni iz~z Shaper 

Power feed Punch press 

Lathe 





APPENDIX 


2. Filing 


Copper 


Hand 


Linen 


Machine 


8. Acetylene and other 


3. Drill grinding 


Welding 


4. Tool crib 


Brazing 


5. Cable work 


Soldering 


Wrapping 


9. Wood-working 


Splicing 


Strut work 


Dipping 


Beam work 


Soldering 


Panel work 


6. Sheet metal 


Wing float 


Riveting 


10. Doping 


Soldering 


11. Final wing assembly 


7. Propeller work 


12. Sewing 


Shaping 


Panel covering 


Tipping 


Power machine 


Brass 





237 



Departmental relations 

1. Employment office 

Kept the training department filled to its capacity, drew the trained 
people from the training department, placed them on production in 
the factory for which they were trained, and maintained close daily 
contact with the training department through exchange of daily 
reports. 

It is necessary for the employment office to keep the training depart- 
ment moving. 

2. Time-keeping 

The record of attendance, punctuality, and time of all persons in 
training was reported daily to plant manager and training director by 
the regular time clerk. 

3. Accounting 

Rendered to the training director a weekly report as to cost of sal- 
vage, expense, wages of learners, instruction, supervision and admin- 
istration. 

Note: A sample sheet of weekly report may be found herewith, page 
242. 

4. Management 

The training director rendered a daily and weekly report to the 
management summarizing operation of training department, embody- 
ing number received, rejected, promoted, returned, and entire oper- 
ating cost of department. 

Operation 
1. Instructors 

The instructors were preferably those taken from the actual pro- 



238 APPENDIX 

duction floor. Experiments were made with persons having had 
teacher's training and experience in teaching activities closely related 
to the Curtiss work. They were employed by the training depart- 
ment and first put on production until they were thoroughly familiar 
with the work, when they were taken over for actual instruction. 

It was found that their sense of production was low and that they 
approached training largely from an academic point of view — that 
they taught more of the construction of fiber than of parts, and ap- 
proached the problem as "getting training and education out of produc- 
tion," rather than getting "production out of training." 

It is strongly recommended that the most practical type of person 
be employed, with factory experience as a background — providing, 
of course,, that he or she is amenable to suggestion, has the proper 
point of view, personality and ability to not only "do the job" but 
also "to impart the information" and eliminate all mystery. 

We found no difficulty in finding an abundance of highly qualified 
instructors employed in the various shops on an hourly basis. They 
were the exceptional persons and occasionally we were mistaken in 
judgment. For instance, we found that a graduate of a foremost 
technical college, who was an excellent producer, lacked teaching 
ability, apparently endeavoring to do the work of ten people instead 
of having the ten persons do it under instruction. Likewise, another 
operative was employed as instructor upon the high recommendation 
of a foreman who wanted to get rid of him and disliked to take him 
back even as a workman. 

These were exceptional cases and were quickly remedied by the 
selection of other operatives who more than made good. 

The difficulty lies not with instructors but with obtaining directors 
for original layout of plan and organization which can be done in 
from one to three days, with the later general direction left to the pro- 
duction manager of the factory and the operation of the training de- 
partment to the instructors selected from the regular factory force. 

2. The learner 

The learner is taken in from the employment office, taught the 
activity for which he is best fitted, and promoted to the production 
floor by the employment office. 

It is highly advisable to refer persons of doubtful physique or health 
to the First Aid department for physical examination to be sure that 
the person is physically adapted to the work for which he would like 
to be trained. 

3. Length of day 

The length of day is the same as that of the factory itself. 

4. Tools and equipment 

The tools and equipment are identical with those used in the factory 
itself. 



APPENDIX : 239 

5. Methods of construction 

The methods of construction and operation are the same as in the 
factory production. 

6. Product 

Instruction is obtained from the regular production of the factory 
for which the operative is being trained. There should be no prelim- 
inary "initiation" or "symbolic" work, although salvage parts may 
be used to advantage as a minimum in extreme cases for the instruc- 
tion which is introductory to the training room as in acetylene welding. 

Rates 

There is a difference between the beginning or "learning period" 
wage rate, in training department, and the "production" wage rate 
after promotion. 

So long as the learner knows that the wage rate will be increased 
automatically upon promotion, and that promotion depends upon 
"coming up to production," then just so much will the learning period 
be shortened and the "production gait" acquired. This eliminates all 
need of discipline. 

Here again is the importance of the instructor's "production sense" 
intensified 

Every instructor should also be a pacemaker. 

Personal relations 

This caused many adjustments and is of supreme significance to 
those who contemplate the induction of women into manufacturing. 
These relations may be summed up as follows: 

1. Personal supervision 

This required a woman supervisor with a factory and production 
point of view. 

2. Clothing 

Uniform: It was found that a "two-piece" garment with complete 
waist was most satisfactory. It can be made in any factory so that 
trousers button to waist. Trousers should be full and have small elas- 
tic bands to fit at top of shoes or ankle, thereby securing a good " hang " 
instead of turning them up and having them slopping down continu- 
ally. The waist should have close-fitting neck, which can be turned 
under and left open or buttoned, and half sleeves. Special sleeves 
should be provided for welders, brazers, and others engaged in similar 
operations involving hazard, which may button on short sleeves. By 
having a two-piece suit it is unnecessary for a woman to furnish her 
shirt-waist. Immediately this involves sex suggestion which should be 
eliminated. The two-piece suit also enables the uniform department 
to fit each half of the suit to the girl instead of the girl to the suit. 

The first uniform, costing about $3.50, is provided by the company 



240 APPENDIX 

lout charge and a replacement made when necessary, but if the 
employee wants two uniforms at once, then the second one is provided 
at wholesale cost. 

When the employee leaves the service of the company, then a rxi- 
mnst be returned before the employee rece iv es her employment 
5 -7 
Caps with rubber band (doth for cooler weather and net for summer) 
;ji:_i :e :'"~~ : - - i ~~:h e;.:_ - : ~ • -' ~ - — 

This is a very important dement, especially for safety, as a woman's 
hair is likely to catch in moving machinery, even a small motor hand 
drill. Besides, tills e ' : -~ : --. --; much -" ■ — - -'--.- is tie hiir r~ ' '•' ::!ier- 
wise become loosened and constantly in the way of the individual. 

Aprons are provided for such activities as may soQ the mmhmm 
rapidly or permanently — a rubberoid apron in the machine shop, for 

Gkh Eke to wear silk stockings and high-heel shoes or slippers. 

Hie stocking should be of cotton and the shoes have low heels. 
Others-lie :he e— ;!:;■- ee ~ ill ': e: :~e ;:-■; :h:iruei. .s :he high iieel 
places the body in an unnatural [ M wiliiw nd one cunai work to 
advantage standing. Urn was Ike cause :: wBmwg - :—~z ■aatBg to 
change over to a "sitting job/ 7 

VT earing of jewelry is not permitted. 



large department has its rest-room for its employees, with a 
in charge. 

Admission is by special pass from the f orelady, for proper regulation. 

It is best to have several such rooms in a large factory rather than 

one, as more convenient in an emergency and also preventing a great 

deal of wandering around the plant which otherwise would develop 

and cause a waste of time and confusion. : 

1 £,-_:- ::-:',- :"•■ 

Each female employee is allowed a rest-period of not less than 
fifteen minutes each morning and each afternoon. 

5. Drinking-water 

This -j provided by dri nk i rt g fountains. In the warmer months the 
water is iced by having the feed pipe coiled in the bottom of ordinary 
wooden, metal lined boxes in which ice is placed. 

6. L '.. "■■' ' ■ '■'-"■ 

It is the practice of the factories obtaining the best results to serve 
at least hot soups, tea, coffee, or milk at the lunch hour. 

In some cases large restaurants are provided and the ranch hour of 
the men "staggered" with that of the women so that they eat sepa- 
rately or "staggered" by departments. 

In other cases "canteen" stands are found in various sections of the 
factory where ssvi : e _ ; given in selling various kinds of food, etc 



APPENDIX 241 

It is always best to have one of these for men and another for 
women. 

7. Safety and sanitation 

A very great percentage of women now entering industry are doing 
so with little previous factory experience, if any. 

Constant attention as to safety and sanitation must be given so as 
to have the newcomer feel that the medical department or nearby 
hospital or company physician is a First Aid rather than a Last Aid. 

A scratch from fine wire may cause blood poison equally with a 
more serious injury. 

Every effort must be made to acquaint the girls and women of 
the large service the First Aid can render. 

8. Sex relations 

In many factories sex difficulties have arisen and tended to decrease 
production. 

If the women are properly inducted into industry through training, 
properly supervised by a matron on the production floors, properly 
dressed in a uniform garb, all difficulties automatically disappear. 

Capacity 

The operating capacity of the entire training department is two 
hundred and fifty persons at one time. The training will turn over 
about once a week on an average thus providing trained workers at 
the rate of 10,000 a year or less as the factory needs. 

Contrast this with a condition found in one of our largest plants 
where the factory needed two thousand trained workers a month and 
the training department was producing only at the rate of 100 a 
month. 

The Curtiss accomplishment shows that a large comprehensive 
plan and service is readily feasible if only the factory management 
insists upon it. 

Flexibility 

The usual custom and tradition of operation schools as a whole 
is on an annual basis with all instructors contracted for on an annual 



These conditions must be entirely forgotten in intensive training 
of factory workers. 

The basis element in a training department is Its flexibility. A sec- 
tion for training may operate for one week or two weeks or months. 
It must be conditioned upon factory needs. 

This means that the instructor can best be taken from the depart- 
ment for which the training is required and when the quota of trained 
people is filled, the instructor goes back on the regular production 
floor and assists not only in production, but also in following up the 
people trained. 



■g ©.§» c 



r.^~ $. 



i i 5 ^ i 

P £ •; = £ 



3& 



>J -* — I 
3 3 3< 



sss 



§ 



o s 



Total 

remain- 
ing 


3C 3* 3i 


3 
5* 


Total 
returned 

after 
promo- 
tion 


-.- = 


3 


Total 
pro- 
moted 


3 »■= 3 


BQ 

■v 


Total 

re- 
jected. 


3 BQ r» 


*C 


Weekly 

total in 

training 


X 3 3< 
3* t? r- 


o 

3 



lit £ 



5 •- ! 



■SI* 






?^:-, 



SiSSi Fio h 



t.^^^ « r" ^s w 

I 



APPENDIX 243 

TRAINING COURSES FOR VOCATIONAL TEACHERS 

One of the great problems connected with vocational education 
is the systematic training of a sufficient number of instructors for 
existing and proposed vocational schools. 

A. Types of teachers required in day industrial school. 

1. Shop teacher — to give shop practice. 

2. Technical teacher — to give related trade knowledge 
for industrial intelligence. 

3. Academic teacher — to give general education. 

B. Part-time or continuation school. 

1. Technical teacher. 

2. Shop teacher (sometimes). 

C. Evening trade or industrial school. 

1. Shop teacher. 

2. Technical teacher. 

(The shop and technical instructors are the teachers that give 
instruction which directly improves the efficiency of the student in 
his trade, and are spoken of as vocational teachers. The academic 
teachers are considered as non-vocational teachers.) 

Experience shows that the academic or non- vocational teacher 
has a definite place in the organization of a full-time day industrial 
school, but not in the part-time or continuation or evening indus- 
trial classes. Pupils in a continuation and evening school have 
intensely practical aims in attending school, and are not willing to 
study systematically the ordinary academic subjects. This in- 
struction must be imparted in an incidental way, as the need of 
it appears, in teaching applied mathematics, applied science, etc. 

An analysis of vocational schools shows that any system for the 
training of teachers must provide for three distinct types: shop 
teacher, technical teacher, and academic teacher. 

A. Qualifications of the shop teacher. 

1. Age, 25-40. 

2. Personality — win the respect of boys. 

3. Trade knowledge — know his trade as fully as a journey- 
man. 

4. Technical knowledge of his trade — command of draw- 
ing, mathematics, and science of his trade. 

5. General education — equivalent to at least an elemen- 
tary-school graduation. 



244 APPENDIX 

6. Principles and methods of teaching vocational educa- 
tion — that is, to understand the aim and purpose of 
his work, and to know how to handle a class in the 
shop, etc. 

7. Ability to train boys to be skilled workers. 

B. Qualifications of a technical teacher or teacher of related 
subjects. 

1. Age, 25-40. 

2. Personality — win the respect of boys. 

3. Trade knowledge — experience and familiarity with the 
processes of the trade, such as will equip to teach the 
mathematics, science, or drawing underlying the trade. 

4. Technical knowledge — ability to teach the technical 
subjects by preparation of not less than two years be- 
yond the highest grade he is to teach. 

5. General education — equivalent to a high school. 

6. Principles and methods of teaching vocational education, 
so as to understand the aim and purpose of his work 
and to know how to prepare and conduct classroom 
work. 

7. Ability to apply, in a practical way, technical subjects 
to trade problems. 

C. Qualifications of the academic or non-vocational teacher. 

1. Age, 25-40. 

2. Personality — win the respect of boys. 

3. Trade knowledge: 

a. Appreciation of conditions and problems of modern 
industry. 

b. Knowledge of the more common tools and ma- 
chines. 

c. Knowledge of the common trade processes carried 
on in the school. 

d. Natural mechanical ability. 

e. Experience as a wage-earner. 

4. Technical knowledge. 

a. Applied science. 

5. General education. 

a. Normal school or college. 

6. Principles and methods of teaching. 

a. Vocational education (technical subjects). 



APPENDIX 245 

b. General education. 

(1) English. 

(2) Civics. 

(3) Economics. 

7. Ability to organize material and teach the same so as 
to interest the pupil and as far as possible have it func- 
tion in ths life of the pupil. 
Any scheme for the training of teachers should provide facilities 
for the training before entering the service and for the training of 
teachers in the service. This means at least an evening course 
and a day course if possible. 

The advantages of the day course are: 

1. Efficient training, because the pupil's full time is given. 

2. Possible to have considerable practice in all types of 
vocational schools. 

Disadvantages : 

1. Only able to reach a few students — mechanics are not 
willing to give up positions. 
The advantages of evening courses: 

1. Possible to reach a large number of mechanics without 
loss of pa> to them. 

2. Reach teachers already in the service. 
Disadvantages: 

1. Unable to have practice teaching in the day school. 

Therefore the most promising plan for the shop teachers is the 
evening course. A day course may be provided for the training of 
technical and academic instructors. 

A training course of two years should be provided for shop 
instructors, evenings; an evening course (two years) for technical 
and academic teachers, and a day course should also be provided 
for technical and academic teachers. 

Two Years' Evening Training Course for Teachers 

Course for shop instructors. 

Principles and methods of teaching vocational sub- 
jects 60 hours 

Industrial science and mathematics 60 hours 

Special methods and practice teaching (shop) : 

Methods in shop instruction are to be given for 

each separate trade by a practical journeyman of 

the trade, who is an experienced trade teacher 120 hours 



APPENDIX 

C:::?e ::: :e:ii::al iiitnitirs. 
Principles and methods of teaching vocational sub- 

- 60hours 

Industrial science and mathematics 60 hours 

Special methods and practice teaching: 
Scieiie si:t aii applied 
Maiienatiii *i:t and app! 
Dra— iii si :p aid applied . 1-2': 'z 

Coarse far academic (non-vocational subjects) instructors: 
Principles and methods of fp^ehmg vocational sub- 

'. '-'-'■-■ 6 ) z yirs 

Industry science 30 hours 

Si:p visiii iizereit trade- :: tenne raniiar — :ih 

^ :e:ls and appliaic-es 30 hours 

Spurial m etlods and practice teaching: 

"En-::- 

Civ::, 

Eatery e: i:irs 

E>-t=a>-cz RzQTTznci^rrs r: Etz>t>-g Tz^lzs-in-:- C:— .=zs 
T be adui: bed to the training course a person must p issess die 



'- 










A 












aai 






Air — 

:: a. 
Trad, 




ieire 






N : t 


_ :- 












E-d a 


: __. 


















Perse - 




— G: 


: : i 


... 








T 




5. 




Age — 

' ti: 


X:t 


less 


ti: 


t-e 



ivf n:: n::e tiiai :idrt7-ive years 

in trade exp-erieice :: eizi: *"ei:5. 
:iivaleit :: app:ei:::e.5iip erpe::- 

■ Gra-diatizi rrin ai eleneiiarv 

::il.:::i aid persiial :iara:te:- 



ive i:: n::e iiai iiirtv-ive 

Trade experience — A minimum trade experience of eight rears, 
three of which must be equivalent to apprenticeship experi- 

ei:e ii tie :: lie trades, under tie trade erte::ei:e :: tie 



APPENDIX 247 

shop instructor, or a training in a trade, in a technical school, 
or engineering department of a school that will give the indus- 
trial and trade experience which will enable him to teach the 
related trade subjects in such a way as to meet the needs of 
(vocational) the worker in the trades taught in the schools, 
of the state or local community. 

Educational qualifications — Graduation from a high school, 
and a technical training in applied mathematics through cal- 
culus; applied science through applied mechanics; applied 
electricity, applied chemistry, and drawing to the extent of 
two years above the vocational school. 

Personality — Good physical condition, and personal character- 
istics. 

Academic instructor: 

Age — Not less than twenty-five nor more than thirty-five years. 

Technical knowledge — A knowledge of industry and trade as a 
wage-earner or amateur mechanic. 

Educational qualifications — Graduation from a high school, 
and an academic training which might be represented by two 
years above the high school. 

Teaching experience — Three years' successful experience in 
teaching above the sixth grade, and special ability in handling 
retarded pupils. It is absolutely necessary for a teacher to 
have a genuine interest in mechanical subjects and appren- 
tices. 

Personality — Good physical condition and personal character- 
istics. 



OUTLINE 

Chapter I 
* The Value of Industrial Education 

1. The Original Distinction between Cultural and Technical Edu- 
cation 1 

2. Divisions of Education 2 

S. Industrial Education 3 

4. The Social Value of Industrial Education 4 

5. The Economic Value of Industrial Education 5 

6. Questions for Discussion 7 

7. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading 8 

Chapter II 
The Educational Needs of Trades and Industries 

1. The Organization of Modern Industry 10 

2. Training necessary for Supervisors and Workers 11 

3. Training for Injured Workers 13 

4. Need of Cooperation between Employees and Employers 14 

5. Education for the Non-English-Speaking Illiterate Worker 15 

6. Questions for Discussion 16 

7. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading. ... 17 

Chapter III 
How Men have been Trained for Trades and Industries in the Past 

1. The Old Time Training of Engineers 18 

2. The Training of the Craftsman under 

a. The Family System 19 

b. The Guild System 20 

c. The Domestic System 23 

d. The Factory 24 

3. Questions for Discussion 26 

4. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading 2?? 

Chapter IV 
Different Types of Industrial Schools 
1. The Development of the College Grade Industrial School 

a. Four- Year Course 28 

b. Two- Year Course . 31 



250 OUTLINE 

* 2. Secondary Industrial Schools 

a. Manual Training High School 31 

b. Technical High School 31 

c. Independent Industrial School 33 

(1) Disadvantages 34 

3. Need of Cooperative Forms of Industrial Schools 

a. Short Unit Courses (intensive) 34 

b. Part-Time Education 35 

c. Continuation Schools 35 

d. Apprentice Courses 36 

4. Questions for Discussion 38 

5. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future. Heading 39 

Chapter V 
Organization of Industrial Schools 

1. Organization of the College Grade Industrial School 41 

2. Organization of Industrial Education under Public School Sys- 
tems 41 

a. Qualifications of Principal or Director 42 

b. Qualifications of Academic Instructors 42 

c. Qualifications of Technical Instructors 42 

d. Qualifications of Shop Instructors 42 

3. Organization of Apprentice Schools 47 

4. Questions for Discussion 50 

5. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading. ... 51 

Chapter VI 
Organization of Evening Industrial Courses 

1. Difference between Day and Evening Industrial Instruction 52 

2. Organization of Evening Industrial Schools 53 

a. Need of Specially Qualified Instructors 54 

b. Unit Courses 55 

c. Multiple Unit Courses 56 

d. Recreation for Unskilled Workers 59 

3. Questions for Discussion 60 

4. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading .... 60 

Chapter VII 
An Industrial Survey 

1. How to Select Courses and Subject-Matter for Industrial Schools 62 

2. Need of Knowledge about Social, Economic, Industrial and Edu- 
cational Institutions 64 

3. Industrial Guidance must Supplement Industrial Education .... 66 

a. Organization of a Vocational Guidance Bureau 67 



OUTLINE 251 

4. Questions for Discussion 69 

5. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading. ... 69 

Chapter VIII 
Principles of Psychology Underlying Learning 

1. Working Knowledge of the Action of the Mind in Acquiring 
Knowledge 71 

2. The Senses 72 

a. The Importance of Training of the Senses 73 

3. The Development of a Habit 74 

4. Instincts 75 

5. The Four Periods of Life 75 

a. Infancy 75 

b. Childhood 76 

c. Adolescence 76 

d. Manhood 77 

6. The Abstract Minded and Motor Minded' 77 

7. Attention, Memory and Law of Association 78 

8. How Knowledge is Accumulated 79 

a. Reasoning 81 

(1) Inductive 82 

(2) Deductive 82 

9. The Theories of Formal Training and Specific Training 82 

10. Questions for Discussion 83 

11. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading. ... 83 

Chapter IX 
General Methods of Teaching 

1. Fundamental Principles 

a. Interest 84 

b. Progression 84 

2. Methods of Analyzing Subject-Matter 

a. Unit Method 84 

b. Spiral Method 84 

3. Five Steps in Teaching a Lesson. 85 

4. Different Means of Imparting Information 86 

a. Lectures and Demonstrations 86 

b. Use of Textbooks 86 

c. Oral Teaching 87 

d. Laboratory and Objective Method 87 

5. Drill 87 

a. The Logical 88 

b. The Psychological 88 



232 OUTLINE 

6. Weaknesses in Traditional School Teaching 90 

7. Sonne ^ujgestive Reforms 91 

S. Questions ::r Diacoaaon 93 

9. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading. ... 94 

Chapteb X 
General Methods for Teaching in Industrial Education 

1. Industrial Worker's Knowledge Consists of 

a. Skill Manipulative 96 

b. Related Technical Knowledge 96 

c. General Intelligence 96 

2. Subject-Matter 

a. Theoretical 97 

b. Practical 97 

3. Methods used in College Grade Industrial Schools 98 

4. Methods used in Technical High Schools 99 

5. Methods used in a Day Industrial School or Apprentice School 100 

a. Skin 101 

b. Related Technical Knowledge MM 

c. General Intelligence 103 

6. Methods used in Trade Extension Classes 107 

7. Questions for Discussion 112 

3. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading. . . . 114 

Chapter XI 
Methods of Teaching Shop-Work 

1. Different Methods of Teaching Shop Practice 115 

2. The Most Effective Method for Training Mechanics 116 

a. Based upon Old Apprenticeship 116 

3. Application of Teaching Steps to Shop- Work 116 

4. Application of Teaching Steps to a Class 117 

5. Arrangement of Shop- Work 118 

a. Time Allotment 119 

b. Grades 1S1 

c. Record Cards U3 

6. Questions for Discussion 127 

7. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading. ... 129 

Chapteb XTT 
if : - J '..:i> :;' I\\:.:r.'~: I-.::-z-r.z:\:*\ :;'£'.: ;-P -:-.:,■ z-.z c; :r . c: .:-:: ; : v : 

1. Difference between Drawing for Draftsmen and Mechanics 130 

2. Types of Lesson Sheets on Shop Drawing 131 

3. Courses of Study in Blue-Print Reading and Shop Sketching. . . 139 



OUTLINE 253 

4. Questions for Discussion 141 

5. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading. ... 142 

Chapter XIII 
Methods of Teaching Shop Science 

1. Development of Science Teaching 143 

2. Industrial Science 145 

a. Content of Information 146 

b. Method of Teaching 146 

3. Questions for Discussion 153 

4. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading .... 154 

c 
Chapter XIV 
Industrial or Shop Mathematics 

1. Some Reasons why Mathematics is a Difficult Subject 155 

2. Necessity of Individual Instruction 156 

3. Lesson Plans 158 

4. Questions for Discussion 167 

5. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading .... 169 

Chapter XV 
Methods of Teaching English 

1. Need of Academic Subjects in an Industrial School 170 

2. Methods of Teaching 171 

3. Lesson Sheets 171 

4. Methods of Teaching Non-English-Speaking Workers 174 

5. Lesson Sheets 177 

6. Questions for Discussion 180 

7. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading. . . . 180 

Chapter XVI 

Manual Training versus Industrial Education 

1. Original Aim of Manual Training 181 

2. Six Stages in the Development 182 

3. Difference between Industrial Training and Manual Training . . 185 

4. Prevocational Training 187 

5. Qualifications for Prevocational Instructors , 189 

6. Suggestive Outlines , 194 

7. Questions for Discussion 198 

8. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading. . . . 199 



254 OUTLINE 



Appendix 



1. Course of Study in Mechanical Engineering in College Grade 

Industrial School 201 

2. Course of Study of Cooperative Engineering Education 203 

3. Course of Study of a College Grade Evening Industrial School. . 204 

4. A Two- Year Course of Study in a College Grade Industrial 

School 206 

5. t Training for the Distributing Phase of Industry 207 

6. Industrial Course of Secondary Grade 210 

7. Cooperative High-School Course of Study 213 

8. Course of Study in Millwrighting, etc 216 

9. Course of Study for a Day Industrial School 220 

10. Unit Courses — Trade Extension 224 

11. Outline for Bench Work in Wood in Manual Training 233 

12. Outline of Training Course for Factory 235 

13. Training Course for Industrial Teachers 243 



INDEX 



Abstract-minded pupils, 77, 100. 
Accidents, 13. 
Adolescence, 75, 76. 
Adult, 75, 77. 
Appendix, 200. 
Application, 85, 102. 
Apprentice agreement, 48, 49. 
Apprentice school, 36, 46. 
Apprenticeship system, 18, 23, 36. 

Blind-alley positions, 4, 12. 
Blue-prints, 130, 140. 

Childhood, 75. 

College grade evening industrial 

courses, 204. 
College grade industrial schools, 41, 

98. 
College grade school of technology, SO. 
Common sense, 81. 
Concrete instruction, 101. 
Continuation industrial classes, 46. 
Cooperative engineering education, 

203. 
Cooperative high-school course, 213. 
Courses in English for ship-fitters, 

175. 
Courses in shop science, 146. 
Cultural education, 2. 

Day industrial courses, 206. 
Day industrial schools, 34, 215. 
Day trade courses, 206. 
Deductive reasoning, 82, 99. 
Development method, 102. 
Different types of industrial schools, 

28. 
Discipline in a vocational school, 104. 
Domestic arts, 3. 
Domestic system, 19. 

Education, cultural, 1; formal, 1; 
general, 2; industrial, 3, 6; infor- 
mal, 1; liberal, 2; physical, 2; pre- 



vocationaI,4; social, 2; technical, 2, 
80; vocational, 2, 6. 

Educational needs of trades and in- 
dustries, 10. 

Engineering schools, 29, 30. 

Evening industrial schools, 35, 51, 
107. 

Evening recreational work for boys, 
233. 

Evening trade schools, 57, 207. 

Evening training courses for teachers, 
316. 

Factory system, 19, 24. . 
Factory training, 235. 
Family system, 19. 
Formal reports, 122. 
Formal training, 82. 

Generalization, 85, 102. 

General course of study, interpreta- 
tion of drawing, 139. 

General education, 2. 

General methods of teaching, 84. 

Genera! methods of teaching in an 
industrial school, 96. 

Graded lesson in board measure for 
joiners, 158. 

Guild system, 19, 20. 

Hand training, 3. 

Hand work, 3. 

History of the training for the trades 

and industries in the past, 18. 
Home economics, 3. 
Household arts, 3. 

Ideas, 79. 

Independent industrial schools, 33. 

Individual instruction in vocational 

classes, 156. 
Inductive reasoning, 82, 99. 
Industrial arts, 183. 
Industrial courses for boys, 211. 



256 



INDEX 



Industrial courses of secondary grade, 
210. 

Industrial diseases, 13. 

Industrial education, 6. 

Industrial English for non-English- 
speaking workers, 177. 

Industrial guidance, 66. 

Industrial mathematics, 155. 

Industrial schools, 28, 33, 44. 

Industrial survey, 62. 

Industrial training, 183. 

Infancy, 75. 

Information method, 102. 

Instincts, 73, 75. 

Institutes of technology, 30. 

Instructors in evening industrial 
classes, 109. 

Interest, 84. 

Intermediate evening trade classes, 
59. 

Judgments, 80. 

Lesson sheets on angular measure- 
ments, 164. 

Lesson sheets on cost of manufacture, 
165, 166. 

Lesson sheets on gearing, 161. _ 

Lesson sheets on intensive training of 
steam engineers, 112. 

Lesson sheets on letter-writing, 173. 

Lesson sheets on mathematics for 
house carpenters, 160. 

Lesson sheets on science, 154. 

Lesson sheets on science for machin- 
ists, 149. 

Lesson sheets on shop mathematics, 
163. 

Lesson sheets on spelling, 171. 

Liberal education, 2. 

Lists of reference for future reading, 
8, 17, 26, 39, 51, 60, 69, 83, 94, 114, 
129, 142, 154, 169, 180, 199. 

Logical method of teaching, 87, 88. 

Manual arts, 3. 
Manual training, 3, 181, 233. 
Manual training outline, 197. 
Mechanical engineering in college 

grade industrial schools, 201. j 
Memory, 78. J 



Methods of teaching English, 170. 
Methods of teaching shop- work, 117. 
Millwrighting, 216. 
Modern shop systems, 14. 
Motor-minded pupils, 77, 90, 100, 
103. 

Occupations, 3; agricultural, 3; 
blind-alley, 3, 4; commercial, 3; 
home-making, 3; nautical, 3; pro- 
fessional, 3; trades and indus- 
tries, 3. 

Organization of evening schools, 52. 

Organization of industrial schools, 41. 

Organization of trades and indus- 
tries, 10. 

Organs of sense, 72. 

Outline, 241. 

Part-time classes, 46, 91. 
Physical education, 2. * 
Practical value, 97. 
Preparation, 85, 102. 
Presentation, 85, 102. 
Prevocational course, 187. 
Prevocational education, 4, 191. 
Prevocational instructors, 1S9. 
Prevocational training in N.Y. City, 

189. 
Progression, 84. 
Psychological method of teaching, 88. 

Questions for discussion, 7, 16, 26, 38, 
50, 60, 69, 83, 93, 114, 127, 138, 141, 
153, 167, 180, 198. 

Reasoning, 82. 
Recitation, 85. 
Record cards, 121, 123. 
Related trade knowledge, 106. 
Related trade knowledge of a scale, 

167. 
Retarded pupils, 77. 

Safety in industry, 151. 

Secondary day industrial schools. HO. 

Secondary grade technical education, 

31, 98. 
Secondary industrial education, 41, 

98. 
Semi-skilled workers, 12, 16. 



INDEX 



257 



Sense perception, 73. 

Shop mathematics, 155. *. 

Shop practice, 105. 

Shop science, 143. 

Shop sketching, 130. % 

Short unit courses, 224. 

Skilled trades, 4. | } 

Skilled workers, 11, 16. I 

Social education, 2. 

Specific training, 82. ^ . ^ 

Spiral method of teaching, 84. 

Steam engineering courses, 230. 

Surveys, 4. 

Technical education, 2, 30. 

Theoretical values, 97. 

Trade extension courses in electric- 
ity, 228. 

Trade training for helpers, 110. 

Training course for mechanical en- 
gineering, 207. 



Training course for the distributing 
phase of industry, 207. 

Training course for vocational teach- 
ers, 243. 

Training in the factory, 235. 

Training of the immigrant, 15. 

Unit courses on drawing for carpen- 
ters, 226; on motors and genera- 
tors for electricians, 225; in print- 
ing, 229; in steam engineering, 232; 
in textile design, 226. 

Unit method of teaching, 84. 

Unskilled worker, 12, 16. 

Vocational counselor, 67. 
Vocational education, 2, 6, 7. 
Vocational guidance, 4, 66. ./ 

Welfare work, 15. \ 



HOW TO STUDY 

AND 

TEACHING HOW TO STUDY 

By F. M. McMURRY 

Professor of Elementary Education^Teachers College, Columbia University. 

Every teacher, student, and parent should read this 
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Price, #1.50 net, postpaid. 

HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY 

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 

MM 



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